From Paganism to Christianity. General Remarks on the Religious Changes in Petra (1st–6th Cent. AD)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.08.12Słowa kluczowe:
Church, Christianity, paganism, Petra, Byzantine, religion, Southern JordanAbstrakt
The aim of this paper is to shed some light on the period of Petra’s passage from paganism to Christianity, which saw the deterioration of pagan beliefs and the struggle for survival between paganism and Christianity. The recognition of Christianity as the official religion of the Byzantine Empire in 313 AD did not mean that paganism had disappeared from Petra. In fact, most of the Nabataean temples in the city remained open until the second half of the 4th century AD, when the city was hit by the earthquake of 363. It was this event that had the greatest impact on the abandoning of the city’s temples, such as the Temple of the Winged Lions, the Temple of Qasr el-Bent and the Great Temple. The historical and archaeological evidence confirms the construction of a numer of churches in Petra, which received considerable attention from the Christian clergy and the administration of the city during the 5th and 6th centuries AD.
Pobrania
Bibliografia
Eusebius’ Life of Constantine, trans. et ed. A. Cameron, S. Hall, Oxford 1999 [= Clarendon Ancient History Series].
Google Scholar
Das Onomastikon der biblischen Ortsnamen, ed. E. Klostermann, Hildesheim 1966.
Google Scholar
The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis. Books II and III, De fide, trans. F. Williams, 2Leiden–Boston 2013 [= Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies, 79].
Google Scholar
Sozomenus, Church History from AD 323–425, trans. C.D. Hartranft, [in:] Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian Church II, vol. II, ed. P. Schaff, H. Wace, New York 1890, p. 179–454.
Google Scholar
Strabo, Geography, trans. H.L. Jones, London 1932 [= Loeb Classical Library, 49].
Google Scholar
Theodoret, Kirchengeschichte, ed. L. Parmentier, Berlin 1954 [= Die griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte, 44].
Google Scholar
Alpass P., The Religious Life of Nabataea, Leiden–Boston 2013 [= Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 175].
Google Scholar
Arjava A., Buchholz M., Gagos T., Kaimio M., The Petra Papyri IV, Amman 2011.
Google Scholar
Avner U., Nabataean Standing Stones and Their Interpretation, “ARAM Periodical” 11–12, 1999–2000, p. 97–122.
Google Scholar
Bailey R.A., The Structure of Paul’s Letters, 2010, www.inthebeginning.org/structure/complete.pdf [8 X 2018].
Google Scholar
Bar D., The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during Late Antiquity, “Journal of Ecclesiastical History” 54, 2003, p. 401–421.
Google Scholar
Barnes T.D., Athanasius and Constantius. Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, Cambridge Massachusett 2001.
Google Scholar
Bayliss R., Usurping the Urban Image. The Experience of Ritual Topography in Late Antique Cities of the Near East, [in:] TRAC 98. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference, Leicester 1998, ed. P. Baker, C. Forcey, S. Jundi, R. Witcher, Oxford 1999, p. 59–71.
Google Scholar
Bikai P., The Churches of Byzantine Petra, “Near Eastern Archaeology” 65, 2002, p. 271–276.
Google Scholar
Bikai P., Petra Church Project, Petra Papyri, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 40, 1996, p. 487–489.
Google Scholar
Bikai P., The Ridge Church at Petra, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 40, 1996, p. 481–486.
Google Scholar
Bikai P., Perry M., Petra North Ridge Tombs 1 and 2. Preliminary Report, “Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research in Jerusalem and Baghdad” 324, 2001, p. 59–78.
Google Scholar
Bowersock G., Polytheism and Monotheism in Arabia and the Three Palestines, “Dumbarton Oaks Papers” 51, 1997, p. 1–10.
Google Scholar
Briggs C.W., The Apostle Paul in Arabia, “Biblical World” 41, 1913, p. 255–259.
Google Scholar
Brock S.P., A Letter Attributed to Cyril of Jerusalem on the Rebuilding of the Temple, “Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies” 40, 1977, p. 267–286.
Google Scholar
Caner D., History and Hagiography from the Late Antique Sinai. Including Translations of Pseudo-Nilus’ Narrations, Ammonius’ Report on the Slaughter of the Monks of Sinai and Rhaithou, and Anastasius of Sinai’s Tales of the Sinai Fathers, Liverpool 2010 [= Translated Texts for Historians, 53].
Google Scholar
Coüasnon C., The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, London 1974.
Google Scholar
Dauphin C.M., Jewish and Christian Communities in the Roman and Byzantine Gaulanitis. A Study of Evidence from Archaeological Surveys, “Palestine Exploration Quarterly” 114, 1982, p. 129–142.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., The Byzantine Church at Petra, [in:] Petra Rediscovered. Lost City of the Nabataeans, ed. G. Markoe, New York 2003, p. 239–249.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., Economics, Administration and Demography of Late Roman and Byzantine Southern Transjordan (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Utah, 1991).
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., From the Annexation to Aaron. Petra in Roman and Byzantine Times, [in:] Petra. A City Forgotten and Rediscovered, ed. J. Frösen, Z. Fiema, Helsinki 2002, p. 60–73.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., The Islamic Conquest of Southern Jordan. A New Research Perspective, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 36, 1992, p. 325–331.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., Late-Antique Petra and Its Hinterland. Recent Research and New Interpretations, [in:] The Roman and Byzantine Near East, vol. III, ed. N. Humphrey, Portsmouth 2002 [= Journal of Roman Archaeology. Supplementary Series, 31], p. 191–252.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., Reinventing the Sacred. From Shrine to Monastery at Jabal Hārūn, “Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies” 42, 2012, p. 27–37.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., Holmgren R., The Byzantine Monastic/Pilgrimage Center of St. Aaron near Petra, [in:] Petra. A City Forgotten and Rediscovered, ed. J. Frösen, Z. Fiema, Helsinki 2002, p. 99–111.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z., Schmid S., Nabataean Basileia and the Earthquake of AD 363 at Petra. Some Consideration, “Mediterraneo antico” 17, 2014, p. 419–432.
Google Scholar
Fiema Z. et al., The Petra Church, Amman 2001.
Google Scholar
Habas L., Crosses in the Mosaic Floors of Churches in Provincia Arabia and Nearby Territories, Against the Background of the Edict of Theodosius II, “Journal of Mosaic Research” 8, 2015, p. 33–60.
Google Scholar
Hammond P.C., The Temple of the Winged Lions, [in:] Petra Rediscovered. Lost City of the Nabataeans, ed. G. Markoe, New York 2003, p. 223–229.
Google Scholar
Harnack A., The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries, vol. II, trans. et ed. J. Moffatt, New York 1908.
Google Scholar
Healey J.F., The Religion of the Nabataeans. A Conspectus, Leiden 2001 [= Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 136].
Google Scholar
Heiska N., The Economy and Livelihoods of the Early Christian Monasteries in Palestine (unpublished M.A thesis, University of Helsinki, 2003).
Google Scholar
Hengel M., Paul in Arabia, “Bulletin for Biblical Research” 12, 2002, p. 47–66.
Google Scholar
Joukowsky M., The Great Temple, [in:] Petra Rediscovered. Lost City of the Nabataeans, ed. G. Markoe, New York 2003, p. 214–222.
Google Scholar
Lahelma A., Fiema Z., From Goddess to Prophet. 2000 Years of Continuity on the Mountain of Aaron near Petra, Jordan, “Temenos” 44, 2008, p. 191–222.
Google Scholar
Macdonald B., What Happened to the Nabataeans? The Literary and Archaeological Evidence, [in:] Studies on the Nabataean Culture II. Refereed Bulletin of the International Conference on the Nabataean Culture, ed. N.I. Khairy et al., Amman 2016, p. 177–196.
Google Scholar
McKenzie J., Iconoclasm in Petra and the Other Nabataean Sites, [in:] Studies on the Nabataean Culture I. Refereed Proceedings of the International Conference on the Nabataean Culture, ed. N.I. Khairy, T.M. Weber, Amman 2013, p. 1–27.
Google Scholar
Meimaris Y., Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia. The Evidence of the Dated Greek Inscriptions, Athens 1992.
Google Scholar
Meimaris Y., Kritikakou-Nikolaropoulou K., Inscriptions from Palaestina Tertia. The Greek Inscriptions from Ghor es-Safi (Byzantine Zoom), Athens 2005.
Google Scholar
Murray M., Religion and the Nomadic Lifestyle. The Nabateans, [in:] Travel and Religion in Antiquity, ed. P.A. Harland, Waterloo Ontario 2001, p. 215–234 [= Studies in Christianity and Judaism, 21].
Google Scholar
Negev A., The Chronology of the Middle Nabatean Period, “Palestine Exploration Quarterly” 101, 1969, p. 5–14.
Google Scholar
Paradise T.R., The Great Flood of Petra. Evidence for a 4th–5th AD Century Catastrophic Flood, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 56, 2012, p. 143–158.
Google Scholar
Parker T.S., An Empire’s New Holy Land. The Byzantine Period, “Near Eastern Archaeology” 62, 1999, p. 134–180.
Google Scholar
Perry M., Life and Death in Nabataea. The North Ridge Tombs and Nabataean Burial Practices, “Near Eastern Archaeology” 65, 2002, p. 265–270.
Google Scholar
Peterman G., Schick R., The Monastery of Saint Aaron, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 40, 1996, p. 473–480.
Google Scholar
Politis K.D., Nabataean Cultural Continuity into the Byzantine Period, [in:] The World of the Nabataeans. Volume 2 of the International Conference The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001, ed. K.D. Politis, London 2007, p. 187–200.
Google Scholar
Roche M.-J., A Nabataean shrine to Isis in Wādī Abū ʿUllayqah, in the South-West of Petra, “Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies” 42, 2012, p. 55–71.
Google Scholar
Russell K.W., The Earthquake of May 19, AD 363, “Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research in Jerusalem and Baghdad” 238, 1980, p. 47–64.
Google Scholar
Al-Salameen Z., Introduction to History and Civilization of Petra, Amman 2010.
Google Scholar
Al-Salameen Z., RQM = (Raqeem) in Historical and Epigraphic Sources, “Journal of the Saudi Historical Society” 31, 2015, p. 7–35.
Google Scholar
Saradi H., The Christianization of Pagan Temples in the Greek Hagiographical Texts, [in:] From Temple to Church. Destruction and Renewal of Local Cultic Topography in Late Antiquity, ed. J. Hahn, S. Emmel, U. Gotter, Leiden 2008 [= Religions in the Graeco-Roman World, 163], p. 113–134.
Google Scholar
Saradi-Mendelovici H., Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries, “Dumbarton Oaks Papers” 44, 1990, p. 47–61.
Google Scholar
Schick R., Christianity at Humayma, Jordan, “Studium biblicum franciscanum: Liber annuus” 45, 1995, p. 319–342.
Google Scholar
Schmitt-Korte K., An Early Christian Record of the Nabataeans. The Maslam Inscription (ca. 350 AD), “ARAM Periodical” 2, 1990, p. 123–142.
Google Scholar
Shahid I., Byzantium and the Arabs in the Fourth Century, Washington 1984.
Google Scholar
Smith R., Arabia, [in:] The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. I, ed. D. Freedman, New York–London 1992.
Google Scholar
Tabbernee W., Early Christianity in Contexts. An Exploration across Cultures and Continents, Grand Rapids 2014.
Google Scholar
Taylor J., Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans, Cambridge 2012.
Google Scholar
Teixidor J., The Pagan God. Popular Religion in the Greco-Roman Near East, Princeton 1977.
Google Scholar
Vries de B., Between the Cults of Syria and Arabia. Traces of Pagan Religion at Umm al-Jimal, “Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan” 10, 2009, p. 177–191.
Google Scholar
Ward W.D., From Provincia Arabia to Palaestina Tertia. The Impact of Geography, Economy, and Religion on Sedentary and Nomadic Communities in the Later Roman Province of Third Palestine (unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, 2008).
Google Scholar
Ward W.D., The 363 Earthquake and the End of Public Paganism in the Southern Transjordan, “Journal of Late Antiquity” 9, 2016, p. 132–170.
Google Scholar
Wenning R., The Betyls of Petra, “Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research in Jerusalem and Baghdad” 324, 2001, p. 79–95.
Google Scholar
Wenning R., North Arabian Deities and the Deities of Petra. An Approach to the Origins of the Nabataeans, [in:] Men on the Rock. The Formation of Nabataean Petra, ed. S.G. Schmid, M. Mouton, Berlin 2013, p. 335–342.
Google Scholar
Zayadine F., The Nabataean Gods and Their Sanctuaries, [in:] Petra Rediscovered. Lost City of the Nabataeans, ed. G. Markoe, New York 2003, p. 57–64.
Google Scholar
Zayadine F., Recent Excavations and Restoration at Qasr el Bint of Petra, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 29, 1985, p. 239–250.
Google Scholar
Zayadine F., Farajat S., Excavation and Clearance at Petra and Beida, “Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan” 35, 1991, p. 275–311.
Google Scholar
Pobrania
Opublikowane
Jak cytować
Numer
Dział
Licencja
Prawa autorskie (c) 2018 Mohammed Al-Nasarat
Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa – Użycie niekomercyjne – Bez utworów zależnych 4.0 Międzynarodowe.
