Is digit ratio (2D:4D) associated with a religious profession? An exploratory study on male Polish seminary students

Marek Kociuba; Tomasz Kulik; Raja Chakraborty; Zofia Ignasiak; Andrzej Rokita; Slawomir Koziel

doi:10.18778/1898-6773.85.3.07

Authors

Marek Kociuba Department of Physical Education, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
Tomasz Kulik Department of Anthropology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
Raja Chakraborty Department of Anthropology and Tribal Studies, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, Purulia, West Bengal, India
Zofia Ignasiak Faculty of Physical Education, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland
Andrzej Rokita Faculty of Physical Education, University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland
Slawomir Koziel Department of Anthropology, Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wrocław, Poland

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18778/1898-6773.85.3.07

Keywords:

prenatal testosterone, foetal androgen, 2D:4D, digit ratio, occupation, religiosity

Abstract

Human females demonstrate higher religiosity than men in populations. Digit ratio (2D:4D), being a putative indicator of prenatal testosterone, is associated in varying degrees with characters that show sexual dimorphism. A small number of studies have indicated that religiosity may be associated with the biological basis of sex differences in humans. The objective of the present study was to ascertain whether 2D:4D in religiously oriented seminary students is different from individuals in other occupations. The study followed a cross-sectional design. Male participants of the study included 13 seminary students, 18 military chaplains and 91 control students from study courses relating to civil occupations. Lengths of second (2D) and fourth (4D) digits and their ratio (2D:4D) for each hand, height and weight were the variables and 2D:4D was the outcome measure. The results demonstrated that the seminary students had significantly higher 2D:4D than both the military chaplains and civil students. The military chaplains had the lowest 2D:4D. The study also revealed that the choice of religious occupation, and for that matter, religiosity, could be linked with the prenatal hormonal environment, particularly lower intrauterine testosterone compared to oestrogen.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Apicella CL, Dreber A, Campbell B, Gray PB, Hoffman M, Little AC. 2012. Testosterone and financial risk preferences. Evol Hum Behav 29:384–390, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.07.001
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.07.001

Auger J, Le Denmat D, Berges R, Doridot L, Salmon B, Canivenc-Lavier MC. 2013. Environmental levels of oestrogenic and antiandrogenic compounds feminize digit ratios in male rats and their unexposed male progeny. Proc Roy Soc Biol 280, https://doi.org/10.101098/rspb2013
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1532

Byrnes JP, Miller DC, Schafer WD. 1999. Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 125:367–83.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.367

Charness G, Gneezy U. 2012. Strong evidence for gender differences in risk taking. Journal of Econ Behav Org 83:50–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2011.06.007
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2011.06.007

Cohen-Bendahan CC, van de Beek C, Berenbaum SA. 2005. Prenatal sex hormone effects on child and adult sex-typed behavior: methods and findings. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 29:353–384.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.11.004

Das A. 2018. Are Men’s Religious Ties Hormonally Regulated? Adaptive Human Behaviour and Physiology 4:306–320, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-018-0094-3
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-018-0094-3

Dell Inc. Dell Statistica (data analysis software system), version 13. software.dell. com, 2016.
View in Google Scholar

Ellis L, Hoskin AW, Ratnasingam M. 2016. Testosterone, risk taking, and religiosity: Evidence from two cultures. J Sci Study Rel 55:153-173. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12248
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12248

Freese J, Montgomery JD. 2007. The devil made her do it? Evaluating risk preference as an explanation of sex differences in religiousness. In: Correll SJ. (Ed.), Social Psychology of Gender (Advances in Group Processes, Vol. 24). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 187–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0882-6145(07)24008-1
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0882-6145(07)24008-1

Galis F, Ten Broek CM, Van Dongen S, Wijnaendts LC. 2010. Sexual dimorphism in the prenatal digit ratio. Arch Sex Behav 39:57–62, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9485-7
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9485-7

Garbarino E, Slonim R, Sydnor J. 2011. Digit ratios (2D:4D) as predictors of risky decision making for both sexes. J Risk Uncertainty 42:1–26.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11166-010-9109-6

Goodyear MDE, Krleza-Jeric K, Lemmens T. 2007. The Declaration of Helsinki. Br Med J 335:624–625. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39339.610000BE
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39339.610000.BE

Harris CR, Jenkins M, Glaser D. 2006. Gender differences in risk assessment: Why do women take fewer risks than men? Judgement Decis Making 1:48–63. http://journal.sjdm.org/jdm06016.pdf
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/e511092014-212

Hickey M, Doherty DA, Hart R, Norman RJ, Mattes E, Atkinson C et al. 2010. Maternal and umbilical cord androgen concentrations do not predict digit ratio (2D:4D) in girls: A prospective cohort study. Psychoneuroendocrinol 35:1235–1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.02.013
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.02.013

Hines M, Constantinescu M, Spencer D. 2015. Early androgen exposure and human gender development. Biol Sex Differ 6:3. https://doi.org//10.1186/s13293-015-0022-1
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-015-0022-1

Hoffmann JP. 2019. Risk preference theory and gender differences in religiousness: a replication and extension. J Sc Study Rel 58:210–230.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12578

Hönekopp J. 2011. Relationships between digit ratio 2D:4D and self-reported aggression and risk taking in an online study. Pers Ind Differ 51:77–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.010
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.010

Ilori OS. 2014. Religiosity, paranormal beliefs, and psychopathological symptoms in two ethnic samples. Human Soc Sci Lett 2:192–202.
View in Google Scholar

Kociuba M, Koziel S, Chakraborty R. 2016. Sex differences in digit ratio (2D:4D) among the students of military and civil courses at military academy in Wroclaw, Poland. J Biosoc Sci 48:658–671. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932015000401
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932015000401

Kociuba M, Koziel S, Chakraborty R, Ignasiak Z. 2017. Sport preference and digit ratio (2D:4D) among female students in Wroclaw, Poland. J Biosoc Sci 49:623–633, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932016000523
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932016000523

Koziel S, Kociuba M, Chakraborty R, Sitek A, Ignasiak Z. 2018. Further evidence of association of low second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) with selection in uniformed services – a study among police personnel from Wroclaw, Poland. J Biosoc Sci 50:527–539. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932017000438
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932017000438

Koziel S, Kociuba M, Ignasiak Z, Chakraborty R. 2016. Is sport choice and participation related to 2D:4D? A study among adult male student in Wroclaw, Poland. Coll Antropol 40:105–110, hrcak.srce.hr:166686
View in Google Scholar

Lindeman M, Aarnio K. 2006. Paranormal beliefs: Their dimensionality and correlates. Eur J Pers 20:585–602. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.608
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/per.608

Malas MA, Dogan S, Evcil EH, Desdicioglu K. 2006. Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D). Early Hum Dev 82:469–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2003.12.002
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2005.12.002

Manning JT. 2011. Resolving the role of prenatal sex steroids in the development of digit ratio. Proc Nat Acad Sci, USA 108:16143–16144. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1113312108
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1113312108

Manning JT, Fink B. 2008. Digit ratio (2D:4D), dominance, reproductive success, asymmetry, and sociosexuality in the BBC Internet Study. Am J Hum Biol 20:451–461, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20767
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.20767

Manning JT, Fink B, Trivers R. 2021. Digit ratio (2D:4D) and body mass index in the BBC Internet Study: prenatal sex steroids and a Trivers-Willard effect on body composition. J Biosoc Sci (online first), https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932021000390
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932021000390

Manning JT, Scutt D, Wilson J, Lewis-Jones DI. 1998. The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: A predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Hum Reprod 13:3000–3004. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11166-010-9109-6
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/13.11.3000

Manning JT, Taylor RP. 2001. 2nd to 4th digit ratio and male ability in sport: implications for sexual selection in humans. Evol Hum Behav 22:61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00063-5

Manning JT, Reimers S, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Fink B. 2010. Sexually dimorphic traits (digit ratio, height, systemizing-empathizing scores) and gender segregation between occupations. Evidence from the BBC internet study. Pers Ind Differ 49:511–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.015
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.05.015

McIntyre MH, Ellison PT, Lieberman DE, Demerath E, Towne B. 2005. The development of sex differences in digital formula from infancy in the Fels Longitudinal Study. Proc Biol Sci 272:1473–1479. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3100
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2005.3100

Miller AS, Hoffmann JP. 1995. Risk and religion: An explanation of gender differences in religiosity. J Sci Study Rel 34:63–75. https://doi.org/10.2307/1386523
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1386523

Miller AS, Stark R. 2002. Gender and religiousness: Can socialization explanations be saved? Am Journal Sociol 107:1399–1423. https://doi.org/10.1086/342557
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/342557

Nave G, Koppin CM, Manfredi D, Richards G, Watson SJ, Geffner ME et al. 2021. No evidence for a difference in 2D:4D ratio between youth with elevated prenatal androgen exposure due to congenital adrenal hyperplasia and controls. Horm Behav 128:104908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104908
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104908

Niederle M. 2015. Gender. In: Kagel JH, Roth AE (Eds.), The handbook of experimental economics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 481–561.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400883172-009

Orenstein A. 2001. Religion and paranormal belief. J Sci Study Rel 41:301–311. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00118
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00118

Pitel L, Geckova AM, Kolarcik P, Halama P, Reijneveld SA, van Dijk JP. 2012. Gender differences in the relationship between religiosity and health-related behaviour among adolescents. J Epidemiol Comm Health 66:1122–1128. http://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2011-200914
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2011-200914

Richards G. 2017. Digit ratio (2D:4D) and belief in superstitions, conspiracy theories, and the paranormal. PsyPAG Quart 10321-26.
View in Google Scholar

Richards G, Davies W, Stewart-Williams S, Bellin W, Reed P. 2018. 2D:4D digit ratio and religiosity in university student and general population samples. Transpers Psychol Rev 20:23–36.
View in Google Scholar

Robinson O, Hanson K, Hayard G, Lorimer D. 2018. Age and cultural gender equality as moderators of the gender difference in the importance of religion and spirituality: comparing the United Kingdom, France, and Germany: age, gender, and spirituality across three cultures. J Scic Study Rel 58:301–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12567
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12567

Rogers P, Caswell N, Brewer G. 2017. 2D:4D digit ratio and types of adult paranormal belief: An attempted replication and extension of Voracek (2009) with a UK sample. Pers Ind Differ 104:92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.038
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.038

Roth LM, Kroll JC. 2007. Risky business: Assessing risk preference explanations for gender differences in religiosity. Am Sociol Rev 72:205–220. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200204
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200204

Sapienza P, Zingales L, Maestripieri D. 2009. Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone. Proc Nat Acad Sc, USA 106:15268–15273. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907352106
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0907352106

Schmitt DP, Fuller RC. 2015. On the varieties of sexual experience: Cross-cultural links between religiosity and human mating strategies. Psychol Rel Spiritual 7:314–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000036
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000036

Stark R. 2002. Physiology and faith: Addressing the “universal” gender difference in religious commitment. J Sci Study Rel 41:495–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00133
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00133

Sullins DP. 2006. Gender and religion: Deconstructing universality, constructing complexity. Am J Sociol 112:838–80. https://doi.org/10.1086/507852
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/507852

Tomaszewska A, Lubońska JA. 2022. 2D:4D digit ratio and its relationship to BMI, sporting choices and physiological predispositions among women. Anthropol Rev 85(2):135–146.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/1898-6773.85.2.07

Trzebiatowska M, Bruce S. 2012. Why are women more religious than men? Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK.
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608102.001.0001

Voas D, McAndrew S, Storm I. 2013. Modernization and the gender gap in religiosity: Evidence from cross-national European surveys. Cologne J Sociol Soc Psychol 65:259–283. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-013-0226-5
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11577-013-0226-5

Voracek M. 2009. Who wants to believe? Associations between digit ratio (2D:4D) and paranormal and superstitious beliefs, Pers Ind Differ 47:105–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.051
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.051

Zheng Z, Cohn MJ. 2011. Developmental Basis of Sexually Dimorphic digit ratios. Proc National Academy of Science, USA 108:16289–16194. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1108312108
View in Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1108312108