The Spoils of War “Divided into Three Parts”: A Comparison between Two Accounts in Skylitzes’ Synopsis historiarum and Kritoboulos’ History of Mehmed the Conqueror

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.10.14

Keywords:

Byzantino-Bulgarian conflict, Ottoman conquest, prisoners of war, captivity, enslavement, deportation, execution

Abstract

One can say without hesitation that during the highly dynamic medieval epoch rivalries and military clashes were of paramount importance in the struggles for dominance over the Balkan Peninsula. During the entire period, war-time activities included the capturing of those who had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the enemy. Various groups of soldiers and civilians alike have repeatedly tested the bitterness of captivity. Attempts to trace the fate of war-captives are, for understandable reasons, directly dependent on the data in the written records. The comparison of the various historical accounts is rather typical, even if the records deal with events that are different in time, place and participants. The present paper also compares two descriptions. This study encompasses two well-known historical accounts: the first one is from the chronicle (Synopsis historiarum) of John Skylitzes, while the second one is excerpted from Kritoboulos’ History of Mehmed the Conqueror. Despite all distinctions, there are some particular similarities. Both fragments concern the division of the spoils of war and the fate of the captured population and provide additional knowledge of the practices relating to prisoners of war in the Balkan medieval past.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Âşık Paşazade, Osmanoğulları’nın Tarihi, ed. K. Yavuz, M.A. Yekta Saraç, İstanbul 2003.
Google Scholar

Basilikorum libri LX, Ser. A, vol. VIII, Lib. LX, ed. H.J. Scheltema, D. Holwerda, N. Van der Wal, Groningen 1988.
Google Scholar

Critobuli Imbriotae Historiae, ed. D.R. Reinsch, Berolini–Novi Eboraci 1983 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae. Series Berolinensis, 22].
Google Scholar

Doukas, Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks, trans. H. Magoulias, Detroit 1975.
Google Scholar

Dukas, Historia Turcobyzantina, ed. V. Grecu, Bucharest 1958.
Google Scholar

Ecloga Leonis et Constantini, Epanagoge Basilii Leonis et Alexandri, ed. K.E. Zachariae von Lingenthal, Lipsiae 1852.
Google Scholar

Ekloga, Vizantijskij zakonodatel’ny svod VIII veka, ed. et trans. E.È. Lipšic, Moskva 1965.
Google Scholar

Georgije Sfrances, Hronika, ed. et trans. М. Stanković, Beograd 2011.
Google Scholar

The History of Leo the Deacon. Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century, ed. et trans. A.-M. Talbot, D.F. Sullivan, Washington D.C. 2005 [= Dumbarton Oaks Studies, 41].
Google Scholar

Hoca Sadeddin Efendi, Tâcü’t-tevârih, vol. III, ed. İ. Parmaksızoğlu, Ankara 1979.
Google Scholar

Ioannis Scylitzae Synopsis Historiarum, ed. I. Thurn, Berolini–Novi Eboraci 1973 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 5].
Google Scholar

John Skylitzes, A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057, trans. J. Wortley, Cambridge 2010, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511779657
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511779657

Kitâb-ı Cihan-nümâ. Neşrî Tarihi, vol. II, ed. F.R. Unat, M.A. Koymen, Ankara 1957.
Google Scholar

Konstantin Mihailović, Memoirs of a Janissary, ed. et trans. B. Stolz, S. Soucek, Ann Arbor 1975 [= Michigan Slavic Translations, 3].
Google Scholar

Konstantin Mihailovič iz Ostrovice, Janičarove upomene ili turska hronika, ed. et trans. Đ. Živanović, Beograd 1986.
Google Scholar

Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror, trans. C.T. Riggs, Westport Conn. 1970.
Google Scholar

Laonikos Chalkokondyles, The Histories, trans. A. Kaldellis, Cambridge Mass.–London 2014.
Google Scholar

Leonardi Chiensis de Lesbo a Turcis capta epistola Pio papae II missa, [in:] Chroniques Gréco-Romanes inédites ou peu connues, ed. C. Hopf, Berlin 1873, p. 359–366.
Google Scholar

Leonis VI Tactica, ed. et trans. G. Dennis, Washington D.C. 2010 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 49].
Google Scholar

Mehmed Nešri, Ogledalo na sveta. Istorija na osmanskija dvor, ed. et trans. M. Kalicin, Sofija 1984.
Google Scholar

Müneccimbaşı Ahmed b. Lütfullah, Camiü’d-Düvel. Osmanlı Tarihi (1299–1481), ed. A. Ağırakça, İstanbul 1995.
Google Scholar

O Procheiros nomos. Imperatorum Basilii, Constantini et Leonis Prochiron, ed. K.E. Zachariae von Lingenthal, Heidelbergae 1837.
Google Scholar

Pamjatniki literatury Drevnej Rusi. Načalo russkoj literatury. XI – načalo XII veka, ed. D.S. Lichačev, L.A. Dmitriev, Moskva 1978.
Google Scholar

Povest’ vremennych let (po Lavrent’evskomu spisku 1377 goda), trans. D.S. Lichačev, O.V. Tvorogov, Sankt-Peterburg 2012.
Google Scholar

A Tenth-century Byzantine Military Manual. The Sylloge Tacticorum, trans. G. Chatzelis, J. Harris, London 2017 [= Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies, 22].
Google Scholar

Tursun Beg, The History of Mehmed the Conqueror, ed. et trans. H. Inalcık, R. Murphey, Minneapolis–Chicago 1978.
Google Scholar

Balard M., The Genoese in the Aegean (1204–1566), “Mediterranean Historical Review” 4, 1989, p. 158–174, https://doi.org/10.1080/09518968908569565
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09518968908569565

Bertosa B., The Treatment of Prisoners of War and Non-Combatants in Quran, “Canadian Military Journal” 8.1, 2007, p. 19–26.
Google Scholar

Božilov I., Gjuzelev V., Istorija na Bălgarija v 3 toma, vol. I, Istorija na srednovekovna Bălgarija VII–XIV vek, Sofija 1999.
Google Scholar

Codoñer J.S., Dates or Narrative? Looking for Structures in Middle Byzantine Historiography (9th to 11th Century), [in:] Byzanz und das Abendland IV. Studia Byzantina-Occidentalia, ed. E. Juhász, Budapest 2016, p. 227–255.
Google Scholar

Croke B., Uncovering Byzantium’s Historiographical Audience, [in:] History as Literature in Byzantium. Papers from the Fortieth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham, April 2007, ed. R. Macrides, Farnham 2010 [= Society for the Promotion of Byzantine Studies Publications, 15], p. 25–53.
Google Scholar

Dain A., Le Partage du butin de guerre d’après les traités juridiques et militaires, [in:] Actes du VIe Congrès international d’études byzantines, vol. I, Paris 1950, p. 347–354.
Google Scholar

Drevnegrečesko–russkij slovar’, vol. II, Μ–Ω, ed. I.Ch. Dvoreckij, Moskva 1958.
Google Scholar

Edbury P., Christians and Muslims in the Eastern Mediterranean, [in:] The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. VI, ed. M. Jones, Cambridge 2000, p. 864–884, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900.037
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521362900.037

Filipčuk A.M., Vizantijskie podchody XI veka k probleme plennych: osleplenie i ubijstvo, “Диалог со временем” / “Dialog so vremenem” 55, 2016, p. 330–340.
Google Scholar

Fleet K., Ottoman Expansion in the Mediterranean, [in:] The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. II, The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603, ed. S. Faruqhi, K. Fleet, Cambridge 2012, p. 141–172, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHO9781139049047.009
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHO9781139049047.009

Fleet K., Turks, Mamluks, and Latin Merchants. Commerce, Conflict, and Cooperation in the Eastern Mediterranean, [in:] Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World after 1150, ed. J. Harris, C. Holmes, E. Russell, Oxford 2012, p. 327–344.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199641888.003.0013

Fodor P., Ottoman Warfare, 1300–1453, [in:] The Cambridge History of Turkey, vol. II, Byzantium to Turkey, ed. K. Fleet, Cambridge 2009, p. 192–226, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521620932.007
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521620932.007

Franklin S., Shepard J., The Emergence of Rus, 750–1200, London–New York 1996.
Google Scholar

Guillet de Saint-George G., Histoire du regne de Mahomet II. Empereur des Turcs, vol. I–II, Paris 1690.
Google Scholar

Haldon J., Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204, London 1999.
Google Scholar

Heywood C., The Frontier in Ottoman History: Old Ideas and New Myths, [in:] Frontiers in Question. Eurasian Borderlands, 700–1700, ed. D. Power, N. Standen, London 1999, p. 228–249, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27439-0_10
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-27439-0_10

Holmes C., Basil II and the Governance of Empire (976–1025), Oxford 2005, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199279685.001.0001
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199279685.001.0001

Holmes C., Basil II the Bulgar-slayer and the Blinding of 15,000 Bulgarians in 1014: Mutilation and Prisoners of War in the Middle Ages, [in:] How Fighting Ends. A History of Surrender, ed. H. Afflerbach, H. Strachan, Oxford 2012, p. 85–95, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199693627.003.0007
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199693627.003.0007

Holmes C., The Rhetorical Structures of John Skylitzes’ Synopsis Historion, [in:] Rhetoric in Byzantium. Papers from the Thirty-fifth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Exeter College, University of Oxford, March 2001, ed. E. Jeffreys, Aldershot 2003, p. 187–199, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315088686-14
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315088686-14

Howard-Johnston J., Historical Writing in Byzantium, Heidelberg 2014.
Google Scholar

Hristov Y., A Glimpse at the Fate of the Byzantine Prisoners of War in Bulgaria during the Period from 976 to 1018, “Епохи” / “Epohi” 27.2, 2019, p. 406–414.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.54664/IJDX7658

Hristov Y., Prisoners of War in Early Medieval Bulgaria (Preliminary Remarks), “Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Center for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-Eastern Europe” 5, 2015, p. 73–105, https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.05.03
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.05.03

Imbăr K., Osmanskata imperija 1300–1481, Sofija 2000.
Google Scholar

İnalcık H., Ottoman Methods of Conquest, [in:] H. İnalcık, The Ottoman Empire. Conquest, Organization and Economy. Collected Studies, p. 1, London 1978, p. 104–129.
Google Scholar

Inaldžăk H., Osmanskata imperija. Klasičeskijat period 1300–1600, Sofija 2002.
Google Scholar

Jennings R., Some Thoughts on the Gazi-Thesis, “Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes” 76, 1986, p. 151–161.
Google Scholar

Kafadar C., Between Two Worlds. The Construction of the Ottoman State, Berkley 1995.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520918054

Kaldellis A., The Manufacture of History in the Later Tenth and Eleventh Centuries: Rhetorical Templates and Narrative Ontologies, [in:] Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Byzantine Studies. Belgrade 22–27 August 2016. Plenary Papers. Belgrade 2016, ed. S. Marjanović-Dušanić, Belgrade 2016, p. 293–306.
Google Scholar

Kaldy-Nagy G., The Holy War (jihad) in the First Centuries of the Ottoman Empire, “Harvard Ukrainian Studies” 3–4, 1979–1980, p. 467–473.
Google Scholar

Kastritsis D., Conquest and Political Legitimation in the Early Ottoman Empire, [in:] Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World after 1150, ed. J. Harris, C. Holmes, E. Russell, Oxford 2012, p. 221–263, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199641888.003.0008
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199641888.003.0008

Khadduri M., War and Peace in the Law of Islam, Baltimore 1955.
Google Scholar

Koder J., Stouraitis I., Byzantine Approaches to Warfare (6th–12th Centuries). An Introduction, [in:] Byzantine War Ideology between Roman Imperial Concept and Christian Religion, ed. J. Koder, I. Stouraitis, Vienna 2012, p. 9–15.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/0x002d6a9d

Kolia-Dermitzaki A., Some Remarks on the Fate of Prisoners of War in Byzantium (9th–10th Centuries), [in:] Atti del Congresso interdisciplinare di studi storici, ed. G. Gipollone, Città del Vaticano 2000 [= Collectanea Archivi Vaticani, 46], p. 583–620.
Google Scholar

Kondyli F., Lords at the End of the Empire: Negotiating Power in the Late Byzantine Frontiers (Fourteenth-Fifteenth Centuries), “The Annual of the British School at Athens” 112, 2017, p. 309–339, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245417000077
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0068245417000077

Kučma V.V., Voennaja organizacija Vizantijskoj imperii, Sankt-Peterburg 2001.
Google Scholar

Kyriakidis S., The Division of Booty in Late Byzantium (1204–1453), “Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik” 59, 2009, p. 163–175, https://doi.org/10.1553/joeb59s163
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/joeb59s163

Laiou A., On Just War in Byzantium, [in:] To Hellenikon. Studies in Honor of Speros Vryonis Jr., vol. I, ed. S. Reinert, J. Langdon, A. Allen, New Rochelle–New York 1993, p. 153–174 (= A. Laiou, On Just War in Byzantium, [in:] Byzantine Warfare, p. I.2, ed. J. Haldon, Aldershot 2007, p. 153–174).
Google Scholar

Liddell H.G., Scott R., Jones H.S., McKenzie R., A Greek-English Lexicon, 9Oxford 1996.
Google Scholar

Lykakē M., Oi aichmalōtoi polemou stē Byzantivē Autokratoria (6os–11os ai). Ekklēsia, Kratos, diplōmatia kai koivōnikē diastasē, Ēthniko kai Kapodistriako Panepistēmio Athēnōv, Athēna 2016 (unpublished PhD dissertation).
Google Scholar

Magdalino P., Byzantine Historical Writing, 900–1400, [in:] The Oxford History of Historical Writing, vol. II, 400–1400, ed. S. Foot, C.F. Robinson, Oxford 2012, p. 218–237.
Google Scholar

McGeer E., Sowing the Dragon’s Teeth. Byzantine Warfare in the Tenth Century, Washington D.C. 1995 [= Dumbarton Oaks Studies, 33], p. 171–362.
Google Scholar

Mullet M., Aristocracy and Patronage in the Literary Circles of Comnenian Constantinople, [in:] The Byzantine Aristocracy, IX to XIII Centuries, ed. M. Angold, Oxford 1984, p. 173–187.
Google Scholar

Munir M., Debates on the Rights of Prisoners of War in Islamic Law, “Islamic Studies” 49.4, 2010, p. 463–492, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1802006
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1802006

Neville L., Guide to Byzantine Historical Writing, Cambridge 2018, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139626880
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781139626880

Nikolov G.N., The Bulgarian Aristocracy in the War against the Byzantine Empire (971–1019), “Byzantina et Slavica Cracoviensia” 3, 2001, p. 141–158.
Google Scholar

Nikolov G.N., Centralizăm i regionalizăm v rannosrednovekovna Bǎlgarija (kraja na VІІ – načaloto na ХІ v.), Sofija 2005.
Google Scholar

Nilsson I., To Narrate the Events of the Past: On Byzantine Historians, and Historians on Byzantium, [in:] Byzantine Narrative. Papers in Honour of Roger Scot, ed. J. Burke et al., Melbourne 2006 [= Byzantina Australiensia, 16], p. 47–58, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004344877_004
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004344877_004

Patoura S., Oi aichmalōtoi ōs paragontes epikoinōnias kai plērophorēsēs (4os–10os ai.), Athēna 1994.
Google Scholar

Pavlov P., Boris i Roman – tragedijata na carskija rod v kraja na X vek, [in:] P. Pavlov, Zabraveni i nerazbrani. Săbitija i ličnosti ot Bălgarskoto srednovekovie, Sofija 2012, p. 53–83.
Google Scholar

Pirivatrić S., Samuilova država. Obim i karakter, Beograd 1997.
Google Scholar

Prinzing G., On Slaves and Slavery, [in:] The Byzantine World, ed. P. Stephenson, London–New York 2010, p. 92–102.
Google Scholar

Prinzing G., Slavery in Byzantium from 566 until 1453, [in:] Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Byzantine Studies. Belgrade, 22–27 August 2016. Round Tables, ed. B. Krsmanović, L. Milanović, Belgrade 2016, p. 176–181.
Google Scholar

Ramadān Ά., The Treatment of Arab Prisoners of War in Byzantium, 9th–10th Centuries, “Annales Islamologiques” 43, 2009, p. 155–194.
Google Scholar

Rotman Y., Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World, trans. J.M. Todd, Cambridge Mass.–London 2009.
Google Scholar

Roueché C., Byzantine Writers and Readers: Storytelling in the Eleventh Century, [in:] The Greek Novel, A.D. 1–1985, ed. R. Beaton, London 1987, p. 123–133.
Google Scholar

Salaymeh L., Early Islamic Legal-Historical Precedents: Prisoners of War, “Law and History Review” 26.3, 2008, p. 521–544, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0738248000002558
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0738248000002558

Schreiner P., Die vermeintliche Blendung. Zu den Ereignissen von Kleidion im Jahr 1014, [in:] Evropejskijat Jugoiztok prez vtorata polovina na X – načaloto na XI vek. Istorija i kultura, ed. V. Gjuzelev, G.N. Nikolov, Sofija 2015, p. 170–190.
Google Scholar

Simeonova L., In the Depths of Tenth-Century Byzantine Ceremonial: the Treatment of Arab Prisoners of War at Imperial Banquets, “Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies” 22, 1998, p. 75–104, https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1998.22.1.75
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1998.22.1.75

Simeonova L., Semiotika na uniženieto: Visokopostaveni čuždenci v imperskata stolica prez X vek, “Родина” / “Rodina” 4, 1996, p. 29–43.
Google Scholar

Sinclair K.J., War Writing in Middle Byzantine Historiography. Sources, Influences and Trends, Birmingham 2012 (unpublished Phd dissertation).
Google Scholar

Starogrăcko-bălgarski rečnik, ed. M. Vojnov, D. Dečev, V. Georgiev, A. Milev, B. Gerov, M. Tonev, 2Sofija 1943.
Google Scholar

Stavrides T., The Sultan of Vеzirs. The Life and Times of the Ottoman Grand Vezir Mahmud Pasha Angelovic (1453–1474), Leiden–Boston–Köln 2001 [= The Ottoman Empire and its Heritage, 24].
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004492332

Stephenson P., The Legend of Basil the Bulgar-Slayer, Cambridge 2003.
Google Scholar

Stouraitis I., Byzantine War against Christians – an “Emphylios Polemos”?, “Βυζαντινά Σύμμεικτα” / “Byzantina Symmeikta” 20, 2010, p. 85–110, https://doi.org/10.12681/byzsym.964
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.12681/byzsym.964

Stouraitis I., ‘Just War’ and ‘Holy War’ in the Middle Ages. Rethinking Theory through the Byzantine Case-Study, “Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik” 62, 2012, p. 227–264, https://doi.org/10.1553/joeb62s227
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/joeb62s227

Tomov T., Bitkata pri Ključ prez 1014 g., [in:] Evropejskijat Jugoiztok prez vtorata polovina na X – načaloto na XI vek. Istorija i kultura, ed. V. Gjuzelev, G.N. Nikolov, Sofija 2015, p. 142–169.
Google Scholar

Toynbеe A.J., Constantine Porphyrogenitus and his World, Oxford 1973.
Google Scholar

Treadgold W., Byzantium, the Reluctant Warrior, [in:] Noble Ideals and Bloody Realities. Warfare in the Middle Ages, ed. N. Christie, M. Yazigi, Leiden–Boston 2006, p. 209–233.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047409120_015

Treadgold W., The Unwritten Rules for Writing Byzantine History, [in:] Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Byzantine Studies. Belgrade 22–27 August 2016. Plenary Papers. Belgrade 2016, ed. S. Marjanović-Dušanić, Belgrade 2016, p. 277–292.
Google Scholar

Whittow M., The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025, London 1996, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24765-3
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24765-3

Wierzbiński S., Prospective Gain or Actual Cost? Arab Civilian and Military Captives in the Light of Byzantine Narrative Sources and Military Manuals from the 10th Century, “Studia Ceranea. Journal of the Waldemar Ceran Research Center for the History and Culture of the Mediterranean Area and South-Eastern Europe” 8, 2018, p. 253–283, https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.08.14
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.08.14

Wright C., Byzantine Authority and Latin Rule in the Gattilusio Lordships, [in:] Byzantines, Latins, and Turks in the Eastern Mediterranean World after 1150, ed. J. Harris, C. Holmes, E. Russell, Oxford 2012, p. 247–263, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199641888.003.0009
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199641888.003.0009

Wright C., The Gattilusio Lordships and the Aegean World, 1355–1462, Leiden–Boston 2014 [= The Medieval Mediterranean, 100], https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004264816
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004264816

Zlatarski V., Istorija na bălgarskata dăržava prez srednite vekove, vol. I, p. 2, Ot slavjanizacijata na dăržavata do padaneto na Părvoto carstvo (852–1018), Sofija 1927.
Google Scholar

Downloads

Published

2020-12-23

How to Cite

Hristov, Y., & Kitanov, V. (2020). The Spoils of War “Divided into Three Parts”: A Comparison between Two Accounts in Skylitzes’ Synopsis historiarum and Kritoboulos’ History of Mehmed the Conqueror. Studia Ceranea, 10, 295–319. https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.10.14

Issue

Section

Articles

Most read articles by the same author(s)