Rus and Khazars

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.13.45

Keywords:

Rus, Khazar, Byzantium, history, 9th–10th century

Abstract

The southern thrust of the Rus in the ninth–tenth centuries is to be explained not only by Viking hunger for wealth and glory, but also by the large, rapidly growing market for furs in the Caliphate. In order to reach that market, the Rus had to cross the Khazars’ sphere of influence in the steppes and wooded steppes of the Volga and Don regions. The khaganate was a great power, which presided over many client peoples. It was perhaps awareness of the potential threat posed by the Rus which prompted the Khazars to improve their northern defences in the 830s. There is clear evidence that they then extended their authority over the Rus, their khagan being acknowledged as Rus ruler. The subsequent history of the Rus, up to their successful rebellion in 965, can only be understood if account is taken of Khazar influence and of wider geopolitical circumstances. The following propositions, all to some extent conjectural, are put forward: (1) that the first Rus attack on Constantinople in 860 was a show of force, timed to coincide with several Arab raids on Byzantine territory, and that it was initiated by the Khazars at the urging of the central Abbasid authorities; (2) that Byzantium was seeking a useful ally both against the Balkan Bulgars and against the Sajids of Azerbaijan, when it offered substantial trade concessions to the Rus in 911, that no objection was made by the Khazars, who had recently faced problems from the Oghuz Turks and their Pecheneg clients, and that the treaty resulted in a damaging Rus raid in the Caspian region after 912–913; (3) that there was a serious deterioration in Khazar-Byzantine relations in the 920s; (4) that the second Rus attack on Constantinople in 941 (this time in great force) was instigated by the Khazars, in response to an abortive Rus rebellion; and (5) that the Rus subsequently patched up relations with the Khazars, who allowed them to invade Azerbaijan in 944–945, and made peace with the Byzantines, signing a new trade treaty in 944. Apart from some evidence of assimilation of Khazar customs, it was the division of the Rus into twenty or so distinct principalities which was the principal longterm outcome of Khazar influence.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Al-Mas’ūdī, Les prairies d’or, vol. I, trans. C. Pellat, Paris 1962.
Google Scholar

Al-Mas’ūdī, Murūj al-dhahab wa ma‘ādin al-jawhar, vol. I, rec. C. Pellat, Beirut 1966.
Google Scholar

Anecdota Bruxellensia, vol. I, rec. F. Cumont, Ghent 1894.
Google Scholar

Annales Bertiniani, rec. G. Waitz, Hanover 1883 [= Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum ex Monumentis Germaniae historicis separatim editi].
Google Scholar

Annales quos scripsit Abu Djafar Mohammed ibn Djarir at-Tabari, vol. I–XV, rec. M.J. de Goeje et al., Leiden 1879–1901.
Google Scholar

The Annals of St-Bertin, trans. J.L. Nelson, Manchester 1991.
Google Scholar

Les atours précieux par Ibn Rusteh, trans. G. Wiet, Cairo 1955.
Google Scholar

The Chronicle of the Logothete, trans. S. Wahlgren, Liverpool 2019 [= Translated Texts for Byzantinists, 7].
Google Scholar

The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284–813, trans. C. Mango, R. Scott, Oxford 1997.
Google Scholar

Chronographiae quae Theophanis continuati nomine fertur Libri I–IV, rec. et trans. M. Featherstone, J. Signes Codoñer, Berlin 2015 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 53].
Google Scholar

Constantin VII Porphyrogénète, Le livre des cérémonies, vol. I–V, rec. et trans. G. Dagron, B. Flusin, D. Feissel, M. Stavrou, Paris 2020 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 52].
Google Scholar

Constantinus Porphyrogenitus, De administrando imperio, rec. Gy. Moravcsik, trans. R.J.H. Jenkins, Washington D.C. 1967 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 1].
Google Scholar

The Eclipse of the Abbasid Caliphate. Original Chronicles of the Fourth Islamic Century, vol. I–VII, trans. H.F. Amedroz, D.S. Margoliouth, Oxford 1920–1921.
Google Scholar

The History of al-Tabari, vol. XIX, Al-Mansur and al-Mahdi, trans. H. Kennedy, Albany NY 1990.
Google Scholar

The History of al-Tabari, vol. XXX, The Abbasid Caliphate in Equilibrium, trans. C.E. Bosworth, Albany NY 1989.
Google Scholar

The History of Leo the Deacon. Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century, trans. A.-M. Talbot, D.F. Sullivan, Washington D.C. 2005.
Google Scholar

The Homilies of Photius Patriarch of Constantinople, trans. C. Mango, Cambridge Massachusetts 1958.
Google Scholar

Ibn al-A‘tham al-Kufi, Kitab al-Futuh, ed. M.J. Abu Sa‘dah, Cairo 1987.
Google Scholar

Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness. Arab Travellers in the Far North, trans. P. Lunde, C. Stone, London 2012, p. 3–58.
Google Scholar

Ibn Fadlāns Reisebericht, ed. et trans. A. Zeki Velidi Togan, Leipzig 1939.
Google Scholar

Ibn Hawkal, Configuration de la terre, vol. I–II, trans. J.H. Kramers, G. Wiet, Beirut–Paris 1964.
Google Scholar

Ibn Hawkal, Kitab surat al-ard, vol. I–II, rec. J.H. Kramers, Leiden 1939.
Google Scholar

Ibn Khurradadhbih, Kitāb al-mālik wa‘l-mamālik, rec. et trans. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden 1889 [= Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, 6].
Google Scholar

Ibn Rusta, Kitāb al-a‘lāq al-nafīsa, rec. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden 1892 [= Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum, 7].
Google Scholar

Ioannes Scylitzes, Synopsis historiarum, rec. J. Thurn, Berlin 1973 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 5].
Google Scholar

Jean Skylitzès, Empereurs de Constantinople, trans. B. Flusin with notes by J.-C. Cheynet, Paris 2003.
Google Scholar

Leo Diaconus, Historia, rec. C.B. Hase, Bonn 1828.
Google Scholar

Liudprand, Antapodosis, [in:] Liudprandi opera, rec. J. Becker, Hanover–Leipzig 1915 [= Monumenta Germaniae historica, Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum ex Monumentis Germaniae historicis separatim editi], p. 1–158.
Google Scholar

Ludovici II. imperatoris epistola, rec. W. Henze, Berlin 1928 [= Monumenta Germaniae historica, Epistolae, 7], p. 385–394.
Google Scholar

Łewond Vardapet, Discours historique, trans. B. Martin-Hisard, J.-P. Mahé, Paris 2015.
Google Scholar

Miskawaih, The Experience of Nations, vol. I–II, ed. D.S. Margoliouth, Oxford 1921.
Google Scholar

Moses Dasxuranc’i’s History of the Caucasian Albanians, trans. C.J.F. Dowsett, London 1961.
Google Scholar

Movses Kałankatuats‘i, Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits‘, rec. V. Arak‘eljan, Erevan 1983.
Google Scholar

Nicetas David, Vita Ignatii Patriarchae, rec. et trans. A. Smithies, with notes by J.M. Duffy, Washington D.C. 2013 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 51].
Google Scholar

Patmut’iwn Łewondeay metsi vardapeti hayots’i, ed. I. Ezeants’, St. Petersburg 1897.
Google Scholar

Photios, Homilies 3 & 4, rec. B. Laourdas, Thessaloniki 1959, p. 29–52.
Google Scholar

Povest’ vremennykh let, rec. D.S. Likhachev, Moscov–Leningrad 1950.
Google Scholar

Priscus, rec. et trans. R.C. Blockley, [in:] The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Late Roman Empire: Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus and Malchus, vol. II, Liverpool 1981–1983, p. 222–377.
Google Scholar

The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, trans. S.H. Cross, O.P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Cambridge Massachusetts 1953.
Google Scholar

Symeonis magistri et logothetae chronicon, ed. S. Wahlgren, Berlin 2006 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 44.1].
Google Scholar

Theophanes Continuatus, bk. 6, ed. I. Bekker, Bonn 1828.
Google Scholar

Theophanis chronographia, vol. I–II, ed. C. De Boor, Leipzig 1883–1885.
Google Scholar

Vita Constantini, [in:] Constantinus et Methodius Thessalonicenses. Fontes, rec. F. Grivec, F. Tomšič, Zagreb 1960 [= Radovi staroslavenskog instituta, 4].
Google Scholar

Vita Georgii episcopi Amastridis, [in:] Russo-Vizantijskije issledovanija, vol. II, rec. V. Vasil’evskij, St. Petersburg 1893, p. 1–73.
Google Scholar

The Vita of Constantine and the Vita of Methodius, trans. M. Kantor, R.S. White, Ann Arbor Michigan 1976.
Google Scholar

Afanas’ev G.E., Donskie Alany, Moscov 1993.
Google Scholar

Afanas’ev G.E., O stroitel’nom materiale i metrologii Khazaro-alanskikh gorodishch bassejna Dona, “Поволжская археология” / “Povolzhskaja Arkheologija” 2, 2012, p. 29–49.
Google Scholar

Afanas’ev G.E., Where is the Archaeological Evidence of the Existence of a Khazar State?, “Anthropology and Archaeology of Eurasia” 57.3, 2018, p. 166–189, https://doi.org/10.1080/10611959.2018.1513287
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10611959.2018.1513287

Blockley R.C., The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Late Roman Empire: Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Priscus and Malchus, vol. I–II, Liverpool 1981–1983.
Google Scholar

Callmer J., From West to East: The Penetration of Scandinavians into Eastern Europe ca. 500–900, [in:] Les centres proto-urbains russes entre Scandinavie, Byzance et Orient, ed. M. Kazanski, A. Nercessian, C. Zuckerman, Paris 2000, p. 45–94.
Google Scholar

Les centres proto-urbains russes entre Scandinavie, Byzance et Orient, ed. M. Kazanski, A. Nercessian, C. Zuckerman, Paris 2000.
Google Scholar

Christiansen E., The Norsemen in the Viking Age, Oxford 2006, https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470693483
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470693483

Dunlop D.M., The History of the Jewish Khazars, Princeton 1954.
Google Scholar

Featherstone J., Ol’ga’s Visit to Constantinople, “Harvard Ukrainian Studies” 14, 1990, p. 293–312.
Google Scholar

Featherstone J., Olga’s Visit to Constantinople in De Cerimoniis, “Revue des études byzantines” 61, 2003, p. 241–251, https://doi.org/10.3406/rebyz.2003.2280
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/rebyz.2003.2280

Franklin S., Borrowed Time: Perceptions of the Past in Twelfth-Century Rus, [in:] The Perception of the Past in Twelfth-Century Europe, ed. P. Magdalino, London 1992, p. 157–171.
Google Scholar

Franklin S., Shepard J., The Emergence of Rus 750–1200, London 1996.
Google Scholar

Golb N., Pritsak O., Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century, Ithaca NY 1982.
Google Scholar

Golden P.B., An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples. Ethnogenesis and State-Formation in Medieval and Early Modern Eurasia and the Middle East, Wiesbaden 1992 [= Turcologica, 9].
Google Scholar

Golden P.B., Imperial Ideology and the Sources of Political Unity amongst Pre-Čingisid Nomads of Western Eurasia, “Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi” 2, 1982, p. 37–76.
Google Scholar

Golden P.B., Khazar Studies. An Historico-Philological Inquiry into the Origins of the Khazars, vol. I–II, Budapest 1980 [= Bibliotheca Orientalis Hungarica, 25].
Google Scholar

Golden P.B., The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism, [in:] The World of the Khazars. New Perspectives, ed. P.B. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai, A. Róna-Tas, Leiden 2007 [= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8, Central Asia, 17], p. 123–162, https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004160422.i-460
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004160422.i-460

Golden P.B., The Question of the Rus’ Qağanate, “Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi” 2, 1982, p. 77–97.
Google Scholar

Griffin S., The Liturgical Past in Byzantium and Early Rus, Cambridge 2019 [= Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought, 4.112], https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316661543
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316661543

Hedeager L., Iron Age Myth and Materiality. An Archaeology of Scandinavia, AD 400–1000, London 2011, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829714
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829714

Howard-Johnston J., A Short Piece of Narrative History: War and Diplomacy in the Balkans, Winter 921/2–Spring 924, [in:] Byzantine Style, Religion and Civilization. In Honour of Sir Steven Runciman, ed. E.M. Jeffreys, Cambridge 2006, p. 340–360.
Google Scholar

Howard-Johnston J., Byzantine Sources for Khazar History, [in:] The World of the Khazars. New Perspectives, ed. P.B. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai, A. Róna-Tas, Leiden 2007 [= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8, Central Asia, 17], p. 163–193.
Google Scholar

Howard-Johnston J., Byzantium, Bulgaria and the Peoples of Ukraine in the 890s, “Материалы по археологии, истории и этнографии Таврии” / “Materialy po arkheologii, istorii i etnografii Tavrii” 7, 2003, p. 342–356.
Google Scholar

Howard-Johnston J., Military and Provincial Reform in the East in the Tenth Century, “Travaux et mémoires” 21.1, 2017, Mélanges Jean-Claude Cheynet, p. 285–309.
Google Scholar

Howard-Johnston J., The Fur Trade in the Early Middle Ages, [in:] Viking-Age Trade. Silver, Slaves and Gotland, ed. J. Gruszczyński, M. Jankowiak, J. Shepard, Abingdon 2021, p. 57–74, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315231808-4
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315231808-4

Howard-Johnston J., Trading in Fur from Classical Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages, [in:] Leather and Fur. Aspects of Early Medieval Trade, ed. E. Cameron, London 1998, p. 65–79.
Google Scholar

Howard-Johnston J., Witnesses to a World Crisis. Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century, Oxford 2010, https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199208593.001.0001
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199208593.001.0001

Ivanov S.A., Vizantijskoe missionerstvo. Mozhno li sdelat’ iz ‘varvara’ Christianina?, Moscov 2003.
Google Scholar

Ivanova M., Inventing Slavonic. Cultures of Writing between Rome and Constantinople, Oxford 2020 (D.Phil.).
Google Scholar

Jankowiak M., Dirham Flows into Northern and Eastern Europe, and the Rhythms of the Slave Trade in the Islamic World, [in:] Viking-Age Trade. Silver, Slaves and Gotland, ed. J. Gruszczyński, M. Jankowiak, J. Shepard, Abingdon 2021, p. 105–131, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315231808-6
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315231808-6

Kennedy H., The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh century, 3Abingdon 2016, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315673516
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315673516

Klyuchevsky V.O., History of Russia, vol. I–V, New York 1960.
Google Scholar

Leyser K., Ends and Means in Liudprand of Cremona, [in:] K. Leyser, Communications and Power in Medieval Europe. The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, London 1994, p. 125–142.
Google Scholar

Leyser K., Liudprand of Cremona: Preacher and Homilist, [in:] K. Leyser, Communications and Power in Medieval Europe. The Carolingian and Ottonian Centuries, London 1994, p. 111–124.
Google Scholar

Leyser K., The Battle at the Lech, [in:] K. Leyser, Medieval Germany and its Neighbours 900–1250, London 1982, p. 43–67.
Google Scholar

Lombard M., La chasse et les produits de la chasse dans le monde musulman: VIIIe–XIe siècles, [in:] M. Lombard, Espaces et réseaux du haut moyen âge, Paris 1972, p. 177–204, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111535777-009
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111535777-009

Mahé A., Mahé J.-P., Histoire de l’Arménie des origines à nos jours, Paris 2012.
Google Scholar

Markopoulos A., La Vie de Saint Georges d’Amastris et Photius, “Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik” 28, 1979, p. 75–82.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003418573-2

Martin J., North-eastern Russia and the Golden Horde, [in:] Cambridge History of Russia, vol. I, From Early Rus’ to 1689, Cambridge 2006, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521812276.007
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521812276.007

Nosov E.N., Novgorodskoje (Rjurikovo) gorodishte, Leningrad 1990.
Google Scholar

Obolensky D., Cherson and the Conversion of Rus’: An Anti-Revisionist View, “Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies” 13, 1989, p. 244–256, https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1989.13.1.244
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1989.13.1.244

Obolensky D., Ol’ga’s Conversion: The Evidence Reconsidered, “Harvard Ukrainian Studies” 12/13, 1988/1989, p. 145–158.
Google Scholar

Petrukhin V.Ja., Khazaria and Rus’: An Examination of their Historical Relations, [in:] The World of the Khazars. New Perspectives, ed. P.B. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai, A. Róna-Tas, Leiden 2007 [= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8, Central Asia, 17], p. 245–268, https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004160422.i-460.38
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004160422.i-460.38

Pletnëva S.A., Ocherki khazarskoj arkheologii, Moscov 1999.
Google Scholar

Pohl W., The Avars. A Steppe Empire in Central Europe, 567–822, Ithaca NY 2018, https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501729409
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501729409

Poppe A., The Political Background to the Baptism of Rus’: Byzantine-Russian Relations between 986–89, “Dumbarton Oaks Papers” 30, 1976, p. 195–244, https://doi.org/10.2307/1291395
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1291395

Rukavishnikov A., Tale of Bygone Years: The Russian Primary Chronicle as a Family Chronicle, “Early Medieval Europe” 12, 2003, p. 53–74, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-9462.2003.00121.x
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-9462.2003.00121.x

Shepard J., Symeon of Bulgaria – Peacemaker, [in:] J. Shepard, Emergent Elites and Byzantium in the Balkans and East-Central Europe, Farnham 2011, no. III, p. 8–18.
Google Scholar

Signes Codoñer J., The Emperor Theophilos and the East, 829–842. Court and Frontier in Byzantium during the Last Phase of Iconoclasm, Farnham 2014.
Google Scholar

Sorlin I., Les traités de Byzance avec la Russie au Xe siècle, “Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique” 2, 1961, p. 313–360, https://doi.org/10.3406/cmr.1961.1474
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/cmr.1961.1474

Stein-Wileshuis M., A Viking-age Treaty between Constantinople and Northern Merchants, with its Provisions on Theft and Robbery, “Scando-slavica” 37, 1991, p. 39–47, https://doi.org/10.1080/00806769108600989
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00806769108600989

Ter-Ghevondyan A.N., The Arab Emirates in Bagratid Armenia, Lisbon 1976.
Google Scholar

Treadwell L., The Samanids: The First Islamic Dynasty of Central Asia, [in:] Early Islamic Iran, ed. E. Herzig, S. Stewart, London 2012 [= Idea of Iran, 5], p. 3–15, https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755693498.ch-001
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755693498.ch-001

Vasiliev A.A., Byzance et les Arabes, vol. I, La dynastie d’Amorium (820–867), Brussels 1935.
Google Scholar

Vasiliev A.A., rev. Canard M., Byzance et les Arabes, vol. II.1, La dynastie Macédonienne (867–959), Brussels 1968.
Google Scholar

Viking-Age Trade. Silver, Slaves and Gotland, ed. J. Gruszczyński, M. Jankowiak, J. Shepard, Abingdon 2021.
Google Scholar

Wasserstein D.J., The Khazars and the World of Islam, [in:] The World of the Khazars. New Perspectives, ed. P.B. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai, A. Róna-Tas, Leiden 2007 [= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8, Central Asia, 17], p. 373–386.
Google Scholar

Whitby M., The Emperor Maurice and His Historian. Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan Warfare, Oxford 1988.
Google Scholar

Whittow M., The Making of Orthodox Byzantium, 600–1025, London 1996, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24765-3
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-24765-3

Wickham C., Ninth-Century Byzantium through Western Eyes, [in:] Byzantium in the Ninth Century. Dead or Alive?, ed. L. Brubaker, Aldershot 1998, p. 245–256.
Google Scholar

The World of the Khazars. New Perspectives, ed. P.B. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai, A. Róna-Tas, Leiden 2007 [= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8, Central Asia, 17].
Google Scholar

Zuckerman C., Deux étapes de la formation de l’ancien état russe, [in:] Les centres proto-urbains russes entre Scandinavie, Byzance et Orient, ed. M. Kazanski, A. Nercessian, C. Zuckerman, Paris 2000, p. 95–120.
Google Scholar

Zuckerman C., Le voyage d’Olga et la première ambassade espagnole à Constantinople en 946, “Travaux et mémoires” 13, 2000, p. 647–672.
Google Scholar

Zuckerman C., On the Date of the Khazars’ Conversion to Judaism and the Chronology of the Kings of the Rus Oleg and Igor. A Study of the Anonymous Khazar Letter from the Genizah of Cairo, “Revue des études byzantines” 53, 1995, p. 237–270, https://doi.org/10.3406/rebyz.1995.1906
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/rebyz.1995.1906

Zuckerman C., On the Kievan Letter from the Genizah of Cairo, “Ruthenica” 10, 2011, p. 7–56.
Google Scholar

Zuckerman C., The Khazars and Byzantium: The First Encounter, [in:] The World of the Khazars.
Google Scholar

New Perspectives, ed. P.B. Golden, H. Ben-Shammai, A. Róna-Tas, Leiden 2007 [= Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 8, Central Asia, 17], p. 399–432, https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004160422.i-460.70
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004160422.i-460.70

Zuckerman C., Two Notes on the Early History of the thema Cherson, “Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies” 21, 1997, p. 210–222, https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1997.21.1.210
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1997.21.1.210

Downloads

Published

2023-12-30

How to Cite

Howard-Johnston, J. (2023). Rus and Khazars. Studia Ceranea, 13, 381–418. https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.13.45

Issue

Section

Articles

Similar Articles

<< < 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.