The Timing of Pregnancy: Women’s Interpretations of Planned and Unplanned Pregnancy
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18778/1733-8077.14.1.03Keywords:
Pregnancy, Planned and Unplanned Pregnancy, Timing, Women’s Interpretations, Transition to MotherhoodAbstract
In this paper, we apply the concept of timing to explore the meaning that women attach towards planned and unplanned pregnancy. We conducted qualitative semi-structured interviews with 42 Canadian women who were pregnant or recently gave birth to examine how they experience the transition to motherhood. We contend that the timing of pregnancy is a socially constructed norm that impacts women through a complex range of life events and circumstances. Participants’ accounts suggest a gamut of compliance, ambivalence, and defiance towards the “timing of pregnancy” standards. Situating women’s decisions on childbearing within the continuum of their life trajectories and societal expectations surrounding pregnancy allows for better understanding of the interplay between women’s personal choices and the social norms informing these decisions.Downloads
References
Abma, J. et al. 1997. “Fertility, Family Planning, and Women’s Health: New Data From the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. National Center for Health Statistics.” Vital Health Statistics 23(19):1-160.
Google Scholar
Adams, Tracey L. 2005. “Feminization of Professions: The Case of Women in Dentistry.” Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers canadiens de sociologie 30(1):71-94.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/cjs.2005.0018
Arai, Lisa. 2009. “What a Difference a Decade Makes: Rethinking Teenage Pregnancy as a Problem.” Social Policy and Society 8(2):171-183.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474746408004703
Bailey, Lucy. 1999. “Refracted Selves? A Study of Changes in Self-Identity in the Transition to Motherhood.” Sociology 33(2):335-352.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0038038599000206
Bailey, Lucy. 2001. “Gender Shows: First-Time Mothers and Embodied Selves.” Gender & Society 15(1):110-129.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/089124301015001006
Beaujot, Roderic. 2000. Earning and Caring in Canadian Families. Peterborough: Broadview.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442602540
Bengtson, Vern L., Elisabeth O. Burgess, and Tonya M. Parrott. 1997. “Theory, Explanation, and a Third Generation of Theoretical Development in Social Gerontology.” Journal of Gerontology SS 52B(2):S72-S88.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/52B.2.S72
Berryman, Julia C. 1991. “Perspectives on Later Motherhood.” Pp. 103-122 in Motherhood: Meanings, Practices and Ideologies, edited by Ann Phoenix and Anne Woollett. London, Newbury Park, New Delhi: Sage.
Google Scholar
Bonell, Chris. 2004. “Why Is Teenage Pregnancy Conceptualized as a Social Problem? A Review of Quantitative Research from the USA and UK.” Culture, Health & Sexuality 6(3):255-272.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050310001643025
Breheny, Mary and Christine Stephens. 2008. “‘Breaking the Cycle’: Constructing Intergenerational Explanations for Disadvantage.” Journal of Health Psychology 13(6):754-763.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105308093859
Brubaker, Sarah Jane. 2007. “Denied, Embracing, and Resisting Medicalization.” Gender & Society 21(4):528-552.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243207304972
Brubaker, Sarah Jane and Christie Wright. 2006. “Identity Transformation and Family Caregiving: Narratives of African American Teen Mothers.” Journal of Marriage and Family 68(5):1214-1228.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00324.x
Charmaz, Kathy C. 2006. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Analysis. London: Sage.
Google Scholar
Coleman, Lester and Suzanne Cater. 2006. “‘Planned’ Teenage Pregnancy: Perspectives of Young Women from Disadvantaged Backgrounds in England.” Journal of Youth Studies 9(5):593-614.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260600805721
Connidis, Ingrid Arnet. 2010. Family Ties and Aging. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
Google Scholar
Copelton, Denise A. 2007. “‘You Are What You Eat’: Nutritional Norms, Maternal Deviance, and Neutralization of Women’s Prenatal Diets.” Deviant Behavior 28(5):467-494.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701252571
Davies, Linda, Margaret McKinnon, and Prue Rains. 2001. “Creating a Family: Perspectives from Teen Mothers.” Journal of Progressive Human Services 12(1):83-100.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J059v12n01_06
Davis-Floyd, Robbie E. 1992. “The Technocratic Body and the Organic Body: Cultural Models for Women’s Birth Choices.” Knowledge and Society: The Anthropology of Science and Technology 9:59-93.
Google Scholar
Douglas, Susan J. and Meredith W. Michaels. 2004. The Mommy Myth: The Idealization of Motherhood and How it Has Undermined Women. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney: Free Press.
Google Scholar
Duncan, Simon. 2007. “What’s the Problem with Teenage Parents? And What’s the Problem with Policy?” Critical Social Policy 27(3):307-334.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018307078845
Elder, Glen H., Jr. 1998. “Life Course and Human Development.” Pp. 939-991 in Handbook of Child Psychology, edited by W. Damon. New York: Wiley.
Google Scholar
Fox, Bonnie. 2006. “Motherhood as a Class Act: The Many Ways in Which ‘Intensive Mothering’ Is Entangled with Social Class.” Pp. 231-262 in Social Reproduction, edited by Kate Bezanson and Meg Luxton. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Google Scholar
Fox, Bonnie. 2009. When Couples Become Parents: The Creation of Gender in the Transition to Parenthood. Toronto, Buffalo: University of Toronto Press.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442697515
Friese, Carrie, Gay Becker, and Robert D. Nachtigall. 2008. “Older Motherhood and the Changing Life Course in the Era of Assisted Reproductive Technologies.” Journal of Aging Studies 22(1):65-73.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaging.2007.05.009
Furstenberg, Frank F., Jr. 2003. “Teenage Childbearing as a Public Issue and Private Concern.” Annual Review of Sociology 29:23-39.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100205
Geronimus, Arline T. 2003. “Damned If You Do: Culture, Identity, Privilege, and Teenage Childbearing in the United States.” Social Science & Medicine 57(5):881-893.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00456-2
Gillies, Val. 2007. Marginalized Mothers: Exploring Working-Class Experiences of Parenting. London, New York: Routledge.
Google Scholar
Goldin, Claudia and Lawerence F. Katz. 2000. “The Power of the Pill: Oral Contraceptives and Women’s Career and Marriage Decisions.” National Bureau of Economic Resarch Working Paper. Retrieved December 21, 2016 (http://www.nber.org/ papers/w7527.pdf).
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3386/w7527
Greene, Sara. 2006. “Becoming Responsible: Young Mothers’ Decision Making Regarding Motherhood and Abortion.” Journal of Progressive Human Services 17(1):25-43.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J059v17n01_03
Gregory, Elizabeth. 2007. Ready: Why Women Are Embracing the New Later Motherhood. New York: Basic Books.
Google Scholar
Gupta, Neeru and Sharda Jain. 2008. “Teenage Pregnancy: Causes and Concerns.” Journal of the Indian Medical Association 106(8):516.
Google Scholar
Hays, Sharon. 1998. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Google Scholar
Heru, Alison M. 2005. “Pink-Collar Medicine: Women and the Future of Medicine.” Gender Issues 22(1):20-34.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12147-005-0008-0
Hilbrecht, Margo et al. 2008. “‘I’m Home for the Kids’: Contradictory Implications for Work-Life Balance of Teleworking Mothers.” Gender, Work and Organization 15(5):454-476.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0432.2008.00413.x
Johnston, Deirdre D. and Debra H. Swanson. 2006. “Constructing the ‘Good Mother’: The Experience of Mothering Ideologies by Work Status.” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 54(7-8):509-519.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9021-3
Kaplan, Elaine Bell. 1997. Not Our Kind of Girl: Unraveling the Myths of Black Teenage Motherhood. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Google Scholar
Katz Rothman, Barbara. 1998. “Motherhood Under Patriarchy.” Pp. 21-32 in Families in the U.S.: Kinship and Domestic Policies, edited by Karen V. Hansen and Anita I. Garey. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Google Scholar
Lareau, Annette. 2002. “Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black Families and White Families.” American Sociological Review 67(5):747-776.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3088916
Leung, R. 2009. “The Biological Clock.” CBS News. Retrieved August 14, 2013 (http://www.cbsnews.com/2100-18560_162-568259.html).
Google Scholar
Litt, Jacquelyn S. 2000. Medicalized Motherhood. Perspectives from the Lives of African-American and Jewish Women. New Brunswick, New Jersey, London: Rutgers University Press.
Google Scholar
Locke, Abigail and Kirsty Budds. 2013. “‘We Thought If It’s Going to Take Two Years Then We Need to Start That Now’: Age, Infertility Risk and the Timing of Pregnancy in Older First-Time Mothers.” Health, Risk & Society 15(6-7):525-542.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13698575.2013.827633
Macleod, Catriona. 2001. “Teenage Motherhood and the Regulation of Mothering in the Scientific Literature: The South African Example.” Feminism & Psychology 11(4):493-510.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0959353501011004004
McMahon, Martha. 1995. Engendering Motherhood: Identity and Self-Transformation in Women’s Lives. New York: The Guilford Press.
Google Scholar
Mitchell, Barbara A. 2006. The Boomerang Age: Transitions to Adulthood in Families. New Brunswick, NJ: Aldine Transactions.
Google Scholar
Musick, Judith S. 1993. Young, Poor, and Pregnant. The Psychology of Teenage Motherhood. New Heaven, London: Yale University Press.
Google Scholar
Neiterman, Elena. 2012. “Doing Pregnancy: Pregnant Embodiment as Performance.” Women’s Studies International Forum 35(5):372-383.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2012.07.004
Neiterman, Elena. 2013. “Teenage Pregnancy as a Social Problem.” Qualitative Sociology Review 8(3):24-47.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18778/1733-8077.8.3.02
O’Brien, Mary. 1989. Reproducing the World. Boulder, San Francisco, London: Westview Press.
Google Scholar
Phoenix, Ann and Anne Woollett. 1991. “Motherhood: Social Construction, Politics and Psychology.” Pp. 13-27 in Motherhood: Meanings, Practices and Ideologies, edited by Ann Phoenix and Anne Woollett. London, Newbury Park, New Delhi: Sage.
Google Scholar
Ranson, Gillian. 2009. “Education, Work, and Family Decision- Making: Findings the ‘Right Time’ to Have a Baby.” Pp. 277-289 in Family Patterns, Gender Relations, edited by Bonnie Fox. Don Mills: Oxford University Press.
Google Scholar
Sassler, Sharon, Amanda Miller, and Sarah M. Favinger. 2009. “‘Planned Parenthood?’: Fertility Intentions and Experiences Among Cohabiting Couples.” Journal of Family Issues 30(2):206-232.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X08324114
Smith Battle, Lee. 2007. “‘I Wanna Have a Good Future’: Teen Mothers’ Rise in Educational Aspirations, Competing Demands, and Limited School Support.” Youth & Society 38(3):348-371.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X06287962
Statistics Canada. 2011. Family Life—Age of Mother at Childbirth. Indicators of Well-Being in Canada. HRDS.
Google Scholar
Statistics Canada. 2016. Fertility: Fewer Children, Older Moms. Retrieved December 21, 2016 (http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-630- x/11-630-x2014002-eng.htm).
Google Scholar
Terry-Humen, Elizabeth, Jennifer Manlove, and Kristin A. Moore. 2001. “Births Outside of Marriage: Perceptions vs. Reality.” Child Resarch Brief Trends. Retreived June 08, 2015 (http://www.childtrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/rb_032601.pdf).
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/e317702004-001
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2003. “Families and Work Transition in 12 Countries, 1980-2001.” Monthly Labor Review. Retrieved April 17, 2012 (http://www.workinfo.com/Workforce/ Families%20and%20Work%20in%20Transition%20in%2012%20 Countries,%201980-2001.pdf).
Google Scholar
Villabolos, Ana. 2014. Motherload: Making It All Better in Insecure Times. Berkley: University of California Press.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520959729
Waldby, Catherine and Melinda Cooper. 2008. “The Biopolitics of Reproduction: Post-Fordist Biotechnology and Women’s Clinical Labour.” Australian Feminist Studies 23(55):57-73.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08164640701816223
Williams, Gareth. 1984. “The Genesis of Chronic Illness: Narrative Reconstruction.” Sociology of Health and Illness 6:175-200.
Google Scholar
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.ep10778250
Woollett, Anne. 1991. “Mothers Under Twenty: Outsider and Insider View.” Pp. 86-102 in Motherhood: Meanings, Practices and Ideologies, edited by Ann Phoenix and Anne Woollett. London, Newbury Park, New Delhi: Sage.
Google Scholar
Yale University. 2012. “Women Cannot Rewind the ‘Biological Clock.’” Science Daily. Retrieved April 05, 2012 (http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120405224703.htm).
Google Scholar