Morpho-facial variations in physical features of two tribal populations of Kargil (Ladakh, India): A bio-anthropological investigation

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18778/1898-6773.86.3.01

Keywords:

Morphological variations, somatoscopic features, Brokpas and Purigpas, Ladakh (India)

Abstract

Somatoscopy is a systematic and cumulative visual examination of the morphological features of an individual. Physical anthropologists have classified humans into certain specific groups on the basis of specific morphoscopical features, and such variations have been widely studied. Fourteen somatoscopic traits of 800 adult (>25years) Ladakhi individuals, belonging to two Kargil (India) tribal groups (Brokpas and Purigpas) were examined; four hundred (N=400) healthy individuals from each tribe i.e., 221 males and 179 females of the Brokpa tribe and 210 males and 190 females of the Purigpa tribe, comprised the present study sample. Statistically significant differences were noticed between the Brokpas and the Purigpas with respect to the frequencies distribution of their skin colour, hair form, facial contour/ profile, nasal types and presence/absence of epicanthic fold, prognathism, Darwin’s tubercle, Adam’s apple, scaphoid, attached ear lobe etc. The Brokpas exhibited significant sex differences in skin colour, eye colour, hair form, nasal septum, nasal tip, epicanthic fold, ear lobe, and Adam apple, whereas only skin colour, eye colour, ear lobe attachment, hair form, and prognathism were found significantly different in the two sexes of Purigpas. The morphological variation and sexual dimorphism in the human physical features of the two Ladakhi tribes will add to the existing knowledge regarding the anthropological characteristics of different ethnic groups of India. The differences in their morphological traits may be due to the differences in their genetic adaptations as the two tribal groups originated from two different ancient populations i.e., the Brokpas are of the European origin and the Purigpas are the descendants of the Tibeto-Mongoloids. The results of this study, however, need to be supplemented with a compressive investigation to confirm the heterogeneity in the morphological and genetic features of the two tribal groups of Ladakh (India) and the influence of differential ancestral migrations on the facial features of the individuals of the two tribal groups.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Alexander KS, Stott DJ, Sivakumar B, Kang N. 2011. Morphometric study of human ear. J. Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 64:41–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2010.04.005
View in Google Scholar

Aoki K. 2002. Sexual selection as a cause of human skin colour variation: Darwin’s hypothesis revisited. Ann. Hum Biol 29(6):589–608. https://doi.org/10.1080/0301446021000019144
View in Google Scholar

Azaria R, Adler N, Silfen R, Regev D, Hauben DJ. 2003. Morphometry of the adult human earlobe: a study of 547 subjects and clinical application. Plast Reconst Surg 111(7):2398–2402. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.prs.0000060995.99380.de
View in Google Scholar

Banerjee AR. 1963. Variations in the medullary structure of human head hair. Proc Indian National Sci Acad (Biological Science) 29:309–16.
View in Google Scholar

Bertillion A. 1893. Identification Anthropometrigue. France: Melun, Imprimerie Administrative.
View in Google Scholar

Bhasin M, Nag S. 2002. A demographic profile of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. J Hum Ecol 13:167–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/09709274.2002.11905524
View in Google Scholar

Bhasin MK. 1969. Ear lobe attachment among the Newars of Nepal. Human Heredity 16:506–519. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45100665
View in Google Scholar

Bhattacharyya BN, De P. 2009. Restoring the Asian Silk Route: Toward an integrated Asia. ADBI working paper series, 140.
View in Google Scholar

Bindal U, Shanjan K, Mitra NK, Priyadarshani B. 2015. Morphological analysis of Vermilion border and its forensic applications. Open J Dent Oral Medicine 3(1):21–28. https://doi.org/10.13189/ojdom.2015.030104
View in Google Scholar

Blackburn DG. 2000. Why race is not a biological concept. In: Berel L, editor. Race and racism in theory and practice. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 3–26.
View in Google Scholar

Blum HF. 1961. Does the Melanin Pigment of Human Skin Have Adaptive Value? An Essay in Human Ecology and the Evolution of Race. Q Rev Biol 36(1):50–63. https://doi.org/10.1086/403275
View in Google Scholar

Branda RF, Eaton JW. 1978. Skin color and nutrient photolysis: an evolutionary hypothesis. Science 201(4356):625–626. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.675247
View in Google Scholar

Buchi EC. 1957. A spectrophometric study of the skin colour of relatives of various castes in Bengal. Anthropological Ethnology 34:7–8. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25754839
View in Google Scholar

Chai CK. 1967. Taiwan aborigines. A Genetic Study of Tribal Variation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University press.
View in Google Scholar

Champod C, Evett IW, Kuchler B. 2001. Earmarks as evidence: a critical review. J Forensic Sci Rev 46:1275–84. http://doi.org/10.1520/JFS15146J
View in Google Scholar

Chattopadhyay PK. 1968. A note on the ear lobe attachment among the Jats and Ahirs. Acta Genet Stat Med 18:277–82. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45104119
View in Google Scholar

Coon CS, Garn SM, Bersill JB. 1950. Races: A study of the problems of race formation in man. Charles C. Thomas. Illinois, Springfield.
View in Google Scholar

Datta U, Banerjee B. 1987. Distribution of earlobe pattern in India. Anthropologie 25(3):263–267. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26295004
View in Google Scholar

Davenport CB, Gertrude C. 1910. Heredity of Eye-colour in Man. Science 26:589–592. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.26.670.589.c
View in Google Scholar

Dharap AS, Than M. 1995. Five anthroposcopic traits of the ear in a Malaysian population. Anthropol Anz 53(4):359–363. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29540551
View in Google Scholar

Donald JH. 2011. Myths of human genetics. Baltimore: Sparky House.
View in Google Scholar

Dutta P, Ganguly P. 1965. Further observations on ear lobe attachment. Human Heredity 15(1):77–86. https://doi.org/10.1159/000151894
View in Google Scholar

Egan T. 1999. Are Dutch ears different from American ears? A comparison of evidence standards. Forensic Evidence. Com/UMKCSchool of Law. http://www.forensic-evidence.com/site/ID/ID00004_1.html
View in Google Scholar

Feenstra L, van der Lugh C. 2000. Ear Witness. J Laryngol Otol 114:497–500. https://doi.org/10.1258/0022215001906228
View in Google Scholar

Fitzpatrick TB. 1975. Sun and skin. J Aesth Med (2):33–34.
View in Google Scholar

Fitzpatrick TB. 1988. The validity and practicality of sun-reactive skin types I through VI. Arch Dermatol 124(6):869–871.
View in Google Scholar

Francke AH. 2008. A history of Ladakh. Srinagar: Gulshan Books.
View in Google Scholar

Gable NE. 1958. A racial study of Fijians. In: Anthropological records 20:1. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
View in Google Scholar

Gayden T, Cadenas AM, Regueiro M et al. 2007. The Himalayas as a directional barrier to gene flow. Am J Hum Genet 80:884–894. https://doi.org/10.1086/516757
View in Google Scholar

Glinka J, Artaria MD, Koesbardiati T. 2008. Metode Pengukuran Manusia. Surabaya, Indonesia: Airlangga University Press.
View in Google Scholar

Guha S. 1935. The racial affinities of the people of India. Census of India, 1931.
View in Google Scholar

Gulati RK. 1990. Morphological variation in South Indian populations. Proceedings of Seminar on Physical Anthropology. 1/27 Prince Ghulam Mohammad Road Calcutta. 347–335.
View in Google Scholar

Haddon AC. 1924. The race of man and their distribution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
View in Google Scholar

Hoogstrate AJ, Van den Heuvel H, Huyben E. 2001. Ear identification based on surveillance camera images. Science and Justice 41(3):167–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1355-0306(01)71885-0
View in Google Scholar

Hourblin V, Nouveau S, Roy N, De Lacharriere O. 2014. Skin complexion and pigmentary disorders in facial skin of 1204 women in 4 Indian cities. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 80(5):395–401. https://doi.org/10.4103/0378-6323.140290
View in Google Scholar

Imhofer R. 1906. Importance of the ear for identification of the identity. Archive Kriminol Bd26:150–163.
View in Google Scholar

Jablonski NG, Chaplin G. 2000. The evolution of human skin coloration. J Hum Evol 39(1):57–106. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.2000.0403
View in Google Scholar

Jaswal JS. 1979. Skin colour in north Indian populations. J Hum Evol 8(3):361–366. https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2484(79)90059-9
View in Google Scholar

Jina PS. 1996. Ladakh: The land and the people. Ladakh, India: Indus Publishing.
View in Google Scholar

Jina PS. 2001. Religious history of Ladakh. Delhi Sri Satguru Publisher.
View in Google Scholar

John R. 2003. The Human Species: An Introduction to Biological Anthropology. New York: Mc Graw-Hill.
View in Google Scholar

Jurmain R, Kilgore L, Trevathan W, Ciochon RL. 2013. Introduction to Physical Anthropology. USA: Yolanda Cossio.
View in Google Scholar

Kalcioglu MT, Miman MC, Toplu Y, Yakinci C, Ozturan O. 2003. Anthropometric growth study of normal human auricle. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 67(11):1169–1177. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-5876(03)00221-0
View in Google Scholar

Kalla AK. 1968. Melanin pigmentation of skin among two Punjabi castes. Anthropologist 55: 33.
View in Google Scholar

Kalla AK. 1973. Ageing and sex differences in human skin pigmentation. Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie (H.1):29–33. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25756080
View in Google Scholar

Kaul S, Kaul HN. 1992 Ladakh Through the Ages, Towards a New Identity. Springfield, VA: Nataraj Books, 118–141.
View in Google Scholar

Kirk PL. 1940. Human hair studies: General considerations of hair individualization and its forensic importance. Journal of American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 31:486–496.
View in Google Scholar

Kwon BS, Haq AK, Pomerantz SH, Halaban R. 1987. Isolation and sequence of a cDNA clone for human tyrosinase that maps at the mouse c-albino locus. PNAS 84(21):7473–7477. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.84.21.7473
View in Google Scholar

Kollias N, Sayre RM, Zeise L, Chedekel MR. 1991. New trends in photobiology: photo protection by melanin. J Photochem Photobiol B 9(2):135–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/1011-1344(91)80147-A
View in Google Scholar

Kuzmina EE, Mallory JP, Koninklijke Brill NV. 2007. The Origins of the Indo-Iranians. Volume 3. Leiden: Hotei Publishing.
View in Google Scholar

Lammi HK. 2003. Ear Biometrics. Laboratory of Information Processing. Finland: Lappeenranta.
View in Google Scholar

Lasker GW. 1954. Seasonal changes in skin colour. Am J Phys Anthropology 12(4):553–558. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330120407
View in Google Scholar

Loh TY, Cohen PR. 2016. Darwin’s tubercle: Review of a unique congenital anomaly. Dermatol Therap 6(2):143–149.
View in Google Scholar

Loomis WF. 1967. Skin-Pigment Regulation of Vitamin-D Biosynthesis in Man: Variation in solar ultraviolet at different latitudes may have caused racial differentiation in man. Science 157(3788):501–506. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.157.3788.501
View in Google Scholar

Loussouarn G, El Rawadi C, Genain G. 2005. Diversity of hair growth profiles. Int J Dermatol 44:6–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-4632.2005.02800.x.
View in Google Scholar

Lu TY, Kadir K, Ngeow WC, Othman SA. 2017. The prevalence of double eyelid and the 3D measurement of orbital soft tissue in Malays and Chinese. Sci Rep 7(1):14819. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14829-4
View in Google Scholar

Majumdar PP. 2010. The human genetic history of South Asia. Curr Biology 20:R184–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.11.053
View in Google Scholar

Malhotra KC, Kanhere GM. 1975. Effect of socio-cultural factors on marriage distance. In: Second Annual Conference of Indian Society of Human Genetics, 10–13.
View in Google Scholar

Meijerman L, Van Der Lugt C, Maat GJ. 2007. Cross sectional anthropometric study of the external ear. J Forensic Sci 52(2):286–293. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00376.x
View in Google Scholar

Millard DR, Pickard RE. 1970. Darwin’s tubercle belongs to Woolner. Archives of Otolaryngology 91:334–335.
View in Google Scholar

Moenssens AA. 1995. Identification by ear impressions. In: AA. Moenssens, B. DesPortes, and R. Kennedy, editors. Scientific Evidence in Civil and Criminal Cases. New York: Foundation Press.
View in Google Scholar

Montague A. 1942. Man’s most dangerous myth. The fallacy of Races. New York: Columbia University Press, 57.
View in Google Scholar

Moore KL, Dalley AF. 1999. Clinical oriented anatomy. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
View in Google Scholar

Moore K, Dalley A. 2006. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. In: Moore K, Dalley A, editors, 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1022–1023.
View in Google Scholar

Munir S, Sadeeqa A, Nergis B, Tariq N, Sajjad N. 2015. Assessment of morphogenetic inherited traits; ear lobe attachment, Bent little finger and hitchhiker’s thumb in Quetta, Pakistan. World Journal of Zoology 10(4):252–255. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.wjz.2015.10.4.95238
View in Google Scholar

Niemitz C, Nibbrig M, Zacher V. 2007. Human ears grow throughout the entire lifetime according to complicated and sexually dimorphic patterns conclusions from a cross-sectional analysis. Anthropol Anz 65(4):391–413. https://doi.org/10.1127/anthranz/65/2007/391
View in Google Scholar

Powell EF, Whitney DD. 1937. Ear lobe inheritance: an unusual three-generation photographic pedigree-chart. Journal of Heredity 28(6):185–186. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a104357
View in Google Scholar

Rowold DJ, Benedico DP, Garcia-Bertrand R, Chennakrishnaiah S, Alfonso-Sanchez MA, Gayden T, Herrera RJ. 2016. Ladakh, India: the land of high passes and genetic heterogeneity reveals a confluence of migrations. Eur Journal Human Genet 24:442–449. https://doi.org/10.1038/ejhg.2015.80
View in Google Scholar

Rinchik EM, Bultman SJ, Horsthemke B, Lee ST, Strunk KM, Spritz RA, Nicholls RD. 1993. A gene for the mouse pinkeyed dilution locus and for human type II oculocutaneous albinism. Nature 361(6407):72–76. https://doi.org/10.1038/361072a0
View in Google Scholar

Rizvi J. 1996. Ladakh cross road of Asia. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
View in Google Scholar

Shah A, Fareed M, Hussain R, Afzal M. 2012. Phylogenetic relationships of Muslim populations of Manipur based on morphogenetic markers. Online Journal of Anthropology 8:463–480.
View in Google Scholar

Sharma I, Sharma V, Khan A, Kumar P, Rai E, Rameshwar NK, Bamezai, Vilar M, Sharma S. 2018. Ancient human migrations to and through Jammu Kashmir- India were not of males exclusively. Sci Rep 8:851. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18893-8
View in Google Scholar

Sharma A, Sidhu NK, Sharma MK, Kapoor K, Singh B. 2007. Morphometric study of ear lobule in Northwest Indian male subjects. Anat Sci Internat 82(2):98-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-073X.2007.00166.x
View in Google Scholar

Sharma KD. 2017. Criteria of Racial Classification. IGNOU, New Delhi. Available at: MANI-002B4E.p65 (egyankosh.ac.in)
View in Google Scholar

Sharma RM, Sharm RK. 1997. Anthropology. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors.
View in Google Scholar

Shimomura Y, Wajid M, Petukhova L, Shapiro L, Christiano AM. 2009. Mutations in the lipase H gene underlie autosomal recessive woolly hair/hypotrichosis. J Invest Dermatol 129(3):622–628. https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2008.290
View in Google Scholar

Simon JD, Peles D, Wakamatsu K, Ito S. 2009. Current challenges in understanding melanogenesis: bridging chemistry, biological control, morphology, and function. Pigment Cell and Melanoma Research 22(5):563–579. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-148X.2009.00610.x
View in Google Scholar

Singh M, Sarkar A, Kumar D, Nandineni MR. 2020. The genetic affinities of Gujjar and Ladakhi populations of India. Sci Rep 10:2055. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59061-9
View in Google Scholar

Singh P, Purkait R. 2009. Observations of external ear: An Indian study. Homo-Journal of Comparative Human Biology 60(5):461–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jchb.2009.08.002
View in Google Scholar

Snell R. 2004. Clinical Anatomy. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
View in Google Scholar

Srinivas S. 1998. The Mouths of People, the Voice of god. New York: Oxford University Press.
View in Google Scholar

Standing S. 2005. The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice. London: Churchill Livingstone.
View in Google Scholar

Standing S, Borley NR, Collins P, Crossman AR, Gatzoulis MA, Healy JC. 2008. External and middle ear: In: Gray’s Anatomy. Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice. London: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
View in Google Scholar

Sturm RA, Teasdale RD, Box NF. 2001. Human pigmentation genes: identification, structure and consequences of polymorphic variation. Gene 277(1–2):49–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1119(01)00694-1
View in Google Scholar

Sundquist CB. 2008. Meaning of race in the DNA era: science, history and the Law. Temple Journal of Science, Technology and Environmental Law 27(2):231–265. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1520020
View in Google Scholar

Tamang R, Thangaraj K. 2012. Genomic view on the peopling of India. Investig Genet 3(1):20. https://doi.org/10.1186/2041-2223-3-20
View in Google Scholar

Tiffany YL, Cohen PR. 2016. Darwin’s tubercle: review of a unique congenital anomaly. Dermatol Therapy 6:143–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13555-016-0109-6
View in Google Scholar

Tiwari SC, Bhasin MK. 1969. Frequency of hand clasping and ear lobe attachment in Tibetans. Human Heredity 19(6):658–661. https://doi.org/10.1159/000152280
View in Google Scholar

Tsering SN. 2012. A Cultural History of Ladakh, Centre for Research on Ladakh, Sabu, Leh.
View in Google Scholar

Trotter M, Duggins OH. 1948. Age changes in head hair from birth to maturity. I. Index and size of hair of children. Am J Phys Anthropol 6(4):489–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330060417
View in Google Scholar

UNESCO. 2010. Silk Road Sites in India. Available at: http://whc.unesco.org/fr/listesindicatives/5492/
View in Google Scholar

Van Doorn GS, Edelaar P, Weissing FJ. 2009. On the origin of species by natural and sexual selection. Science 326:1704–1707. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1181661
View in Google Scholar

Wade N. 2014. A troublesome inheritance: Genes, race and human history. Second edition. New York: Penguin.
View in Google Scholar

Walter H. 1971. Remarks on the environmental adaptation of man. Human Genetik 13(2):85–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00295790
View in Google Scholar

Zaidi AA, Mattern BC, Claes P, McEvoy B, Hughes C, et al. 2018. Correction: Investigating the case of human nose shape and climate adaptation. PLOS Genetics 14(1): e1007207. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1007207
View in Google Scholar

Zolbin MM, Hassanzadeh G, Mokhtari T, Arabkheradmand A, Hassanzadeh S. 2015. Anthropometric studies of nasal parameters of Qazvin Residents, Iran. MOJ Anat Physiol 1(1) L00002. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojap.2015.01.00002
View in Google Scholar

Downloads

Published

2023-08-22 — Updated on 2023-12-01

Versions

How to Cite

Sehrawat, J. S., & Ali, M. (2023). Morpho-facial variations in physical features of two tribal populations of Kargil (Ladakh, India): A bio-anthropological investigation. Anthropological Review, 86(3), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.18778/1898-6773.86.3.01 (Original work published August 22, 2023)

Issue

Section

Articles

Funding data

Similar Articles

<< < 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 > >> 

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.