Strategic Planning in the Middle Byzantine Period: A "Limitrophe" Policy Reintroduced?

Dragan Gjalevski

doi:10.18778/2084-140X.13.39

Authors

Dragan Gjalevski Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Institute of National History https://orcid.org/0009-0001-2245-7920

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18778/2084-140X.13.39

Keywords:

Byzantine Empire, Middle Byzantine period, Byzantine diplomacy, strategic planning, limitrophe policy, Byzantine client states

Abstract

In order to maintain or improve its political stability and overall might every state conducts certain policies, both domestic and foreign, throughout its history. They are usually a result of a systematic planning, encompassing in the process multiple state sectors. The Byzantine Empire was no exception. Throughout centuries of existence, the imperial government implemented numerous reforms and carried out reorganisation in the military, administrative and fiscal departments, with the intention to improve its governance. Creation of the military commands – strategides, thémata and tágmata corps are only some of the changes, and their implementation certainly required prior planning in accordance with the requirements and capacity of the state. In relation to foreign policy, starting from the mid-ninth century, a formation of a number of client states that were more or less politically dependent on Constantinople can be observed on the Byzantine borders; their existence ended around the mid-eleventh century. This paper aims to examine the process of establishing client states on the Byzantine borders, i.e., whether it was a policy initiated and subsequently applied by the imperial government as a result of some pre-determined planning, or whether it was just an ad hoc solution.

This paper was presented on the 24th International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Venice and Padua, 22-27 August 2022.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Archdeacon Thomas of Split, History of the Bishops of Salona and Split, ed. D. Karbić, M. M. Sokol, J. R. Sweeny, Budapest 2006.
Google Scholar

Armenia and the Crusades. Tenth to Twelfth Centuries. The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, trans. A. E. Dostourian, Lanham 1993.
Google Scholar

The Chronicle of John of Malalas, trans. E. Jeffreys, M. Jeffreys, R. Scott, Leiden 2017 [= Byzantina Australiensia, 4].
Google Scholar

The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, trans. A. E. Dostourian, Lanham–London 1993.
Google Scholar

The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor. Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284–813, trans. C. Mango, R. Scott, Oxford 1997.
Google Scholar

Chronographiae quae Theophanis Continuati, Nomine Fertur, Liber Quo, Vita Basilii Impeatoris Amplectitur, trans. I. Ševčenko, Berlin–Boston 2011 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae. Series Berolinensis, 42].
Google Scholar

Chronographiae quae Theophanis Continuati, Nomine Fertur, Libri I–IV, trans. M. Featherstone, J. Signes Codoñer, Boston–Berlin 2015 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae. Series Berolinensis, 53].
Google Scholar

Collectio Librorum Juris Graeco-Romani Ineditorum: Ecloga Leonis Et Constantini, Epanagoge Basilii Leonis Et Alexandri, ed. C. E.Z. a Lingenthal, Lipsiae 1852.
Google Scholar

The Complete Works of Liudprand of Cremona, trans. P. Squartiti, Washington D. C. 2007.
Google Scholar

Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, ed. G. Moravcsik, trans. R. J.H. Jenkins, Washington D. C. 1967 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 1].
Google Scholar

Constantine Porphyrogennetos, The Book of Ceremonies, trans. A. Moffatt, M. Tall, Leiden 2012 [= Byzantina Australiensia, 18].
Google Scholar

Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, by John Kinnamos, trans. C. M. Brand, New York 1976.
Google Scholar

Georgi Pisidae, Expeditio Persica, Bellum Avaricum, Heraclias, ed. I. Bekkeri, Bonnae 1836 [= Corpus scriptorum historiae byzantinae].
Google Scholar

The History of Leo the Deacon. Byzantine Military Expansion in the Tenth Century, trans. A.-M. Talbot, D. F. Sullivan, Washington D. C. 2005 [= Dumbarton Oaks Studies, 41].
Google Scholar

The History of Menander the Guardsmаn, ed. et trans. R. C. Blockley, Liverpool 1985.
Google Scholar

Ioannis Zonarae, Epitome Historiarum, vol. IV, ed. L. Dindorfius, Leipzig 1871 [= Corpus scriptorium historiae byzantinae], https://doi.org/10.1515/9783112423141
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783112423141

John of Biclaro, Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain, trans. K. B. Wolf, 2Liverpool 2011 [= Translated Texts for Historians, 9].
Google Scholar

John Skylitzes, A Synopsis of Byzantine History, 811–1057, trans. J. Wortley, Cambridge 2010, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511779657
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511779657

Michaelis Pselli Chronographia, ed. D. R. Reinsch, Berlin–Boston 2014 [= Millennium-Studien.
Google Scholar

Studien zu Kultur und Geschichte des ersten Jahrtausends n. Chr. / Studies in the Culture and History of the First Millennium C. E., 51.1].
Google Scholar

Nikephoros, Patriarch of Constantinople, Short History, trans. C. Mango, Washington D.C. 1990 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae. Series Washingtonensis, 13].
Google Scholar

O City of Byzantium. Annals of Niketas Choniatēs, trans. H. J. Magoulias, Detroit 1984.
Google Scholar

Procopius, Buildings. General Index, trans. H. B. Dewing, London–Cambridge Massachusetts 1940 [= Loeb Classical Library, 343], https://doi.org/10.4159/DLCL.procopius-buildings.1940
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/DLCL.procopius-buildings.1940

Procopius, History of the Wars. The Gothic Wars. Books V and VI, trans. H. B. Dewing, London–New York 1919 [= Loeb Classical Library, 107].
Google Scholar

Procopius, History of the Wars. The Gothic Wars. Books VII (continued) and VIII, trans. H. B. Dewing, London–Cambridge Massachusetts 1928 [= Loeb Classical Library, 217].
Google Scholar

Procopius, History of the Wars. The Persian War. Books I and II, trans. H. B. Dewing, London–New York 1914 [= Loeb Classical Library, 48], https://doi.org/10.4159/DLCL.procopius-history_wars.1914
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/DLCL.procopius-history_wars.1914

The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, ed. et trans. S. H. Cross, O. P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor, Massachusetts 1953.
Google Scholar

Das Strategikon des Maurikios, ed. G. T. Dennis, Wien 1981 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae, 17].
Google Scholar

Three Byzantine Military Treatises, ed. et trans. G. T. Dennis, Washington D. C. 1985 [= Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae. Series Washingtonensis, 25].
Google Scholar

The Universal History of Step’anos Tarōnec’I, trans. T. Greenwood, Oxford 2017.
Google Scholar

Ahrweiler H., L’idéologie politique de l’Empire byzantine, Paris 1975.
Google Scholar

Angold M., Belle Époque or Crisis? (1025–1118), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 583–626, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.023
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.023

Bell S., Hindmoor A., Rethinking Governance. The Centrality of the State in Modern Society, Cambridge 2009, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814617
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511814617

Budak N., Croatia and Byzantium in the Tenth century. A Latin Member of the Byzantine Commonwealth, [in:] Center, Province and Periphery in the Age of Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos. From De Ceremoniis to De Administrando Imperio, ed. N. Gaul, V. Menze, C. Bálint, Wiesbaden 2018 [= Mainzer Veröffentlichungen zur Byzantinistik, 15], p. 211–222, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvckq3hr.21
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvckq3hr.21

Budak N., Croats between Franks and Byzantium, “Hortus Artium Medievalium” 3, 1997, p. 15–22, https://doi.org/10.1484/J.HAM.2.305095
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1484/J.HAM.2.305095

Cheynet J.-C., Basil II and Asia Minor, [in:] Byzantium in the Year 1000, ed. P. Magdalino, Leiden–Boston 2003 [= The Medieval Mediterranean, 45], p. 71–108, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047404095_007
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047404095_007

Chrysos E., Byzantium between East and West: Opponents and Allies, [in:] Heaven and Earth, Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections, ed. A. Drandaki, D. P. Bakirtzi, A. Tourta, Athens 2013, p. 278–288.
Google Scholar

Conrad L. I., Eastern Neighbours: The Arabs to the Time of the Prophet, [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 173–195, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.009
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.009

Curta F., Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250, Cambridge 2006 [= Cambridge Medieval Textbooks], https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815638
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815638

The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, ed. A. E. Laiou, Washington D. C. 2022.
Google Scholar

von Falkenhausen V., Between Two Empires: Byzantine Italy in the Reign of Basil II, [in:] Byzantium in the Year 1000, ed. P. Magdalino, Leiden–Boston 2003 [= The Medieval Mediterranean, 45], p. 135–159, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047404095_009
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047404095_009

Farag W., The Aleppo Question: a Byzantine-Fatimid Conflict of Interests in Northern Syria in the Later Tenth Century A.D., “Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies” 14, 1990, p. 44–60, https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1990.14.1.44
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/byz.1990.14.1.44

Freedman L., Strategy. A History, New York 2013.
Google Scholar

Gjalevski D., An Outline of Byzantine Diplomacy in the Eastern Adriatic Region (c.867–1000), “Историjа / Journal of History” 55.1, 2020, p. 21–45.
Google Scholar

Gjalevski D., Byzantine Military Tradition, Diplomacy and Indication of Strategy of Statecraft (6th – 12th Centuries), “Гласник” / “Glasnik” 65.1–2, 2021, p. 9–25.
Google Scholar

Gjalevski D., Diplomatskite aspekti na vizantiskoto misionerstvo, [in:] Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium “Days of Justinian I” Skopje, 11–12 November 2016, ed. M. B. Panov, Skopje 2017, p. 66–81.
Google Scholar

Greenwood T. W., Armenian Neighbours (600–1045), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 333–364, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.015
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.015

Haldon J., Brubaker L., Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c.680–850. A History, Cambridge 2011.
Google Scholar

Haldon J. F., Byzantine Pretorians. An Administrative, Institutional and Social Survey of the Opsikion and the Tagmata, c.580–900, Bonn 1984 [= Ποικίλα Βυζαντινά / Poikíla Vyzantiná, 3].
Google Scholar

Haldon J. F., Theory and Practice in Tenth-Century Military Administration. Chapters II, 44 and 45 of the Book of Ceremonies, “Travaux et Mémoires” 13, 2000, p. 201–352.
Google Scholar

Haldon J. F., Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204, London 1999.
Google Scholar

Handbook on Theories of Governance, ed. C. Ansell, J. Torfing, 2Cheltenham–Northampton 2022, https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800371972
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781800371972

Harvey A., Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire, 900–1200, Cambridge 1989, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511562433
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511562433

Hendy M. F., Studies in the Byzantine Monetary Economy, c.300–1450, Cambridge 1985, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511896750
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511896750

Ivanov S. A., Religious Missions, [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 305–332, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.014
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.014

Ivanov S. A., ‘With the Emperors Help’: An Open-handed Mission and Byzantine Diplomacy, [in:] Cyril and Methodius. Byzantium and the World of the Slavs. International Scientific Conference 20th–30th November 2013, ed. A. E.N. Tachiaos, Thessaloniki 2015, p. 76–80.
Google Scholar

Kaldellis A., Streams of Gold rivers of Blood. The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade, Oxford 2017 [= Onassis Series in Hellenic Culture].
Google Scholar

Kaplan M. A., An Introduction to the Strategy of Statecraft, “World Politics” 4.4, 1952, p. 548–576, https://doi.org/10.2307/2008966
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2008966

Katsamunska P., The Concept of Governance and Public Governance Theories, “Economic Alternatives” 2, 2016, p. 133–141.
Google Scholar

Kazhdan A., The Notion of Byzantine diplomacy, [in:] Byzantine Diplomacy. Papers from the Twenty-Fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990, ed. J. Shepard, S. Franklin, Aldershot 1992, p. 3–24.
Google Scholar

Kennedy H., Byzantine-Arab Diplomacy in the Near East from the Islamic Conquests to the Mid Eleventh Century, [in:] Byzantine Diplomacy. Papers from the Twenty-Fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990, ed. J. Shepard, S. Franklin, Aldershot 1992, p. 133–144.
Google Scholar

Kjær A. M., Governance, Cambridge 2004.
Google Scholar

Koder J., Stouraitis I., Byzantine Approaches to Warfare (6th–12th centuries). An Introduction, [in:] Byzantine War Ideology between Roman Imperial Concept and Christian Religion. Akten des Internationalen Symposiums (Wien, 19.–21. Mai 2011), ed. J. Koder, I. Stouratidis, Wien 2012 [= Denkschriften der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Classe, 30], p. 9–16.
Google Scholar

Korobeinikov D. A., Raiders and Neighbours: The Turks (1040–1304), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 692–727, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.026
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.026

Kühn H.-J., Die Byzantinische Armee im 10. und 11. Jahrhundert. Studien zur Organisation der Tagmata, Wien 1991 [= Byzantinische Geschichtsschreiber. Ergänzungsband, 2].
Google Scholar

Laiou A. E., On Just War in Byzantium, [in:] Byzantium and the Other. Relations and Exchanges, ed. A. E. Laiou, C. Morrisson, R. Dorin, London 2012, p. 153–177, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351219747-5
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351219747-5

Laiou A. E., Morrisson C., The Byzantine Economy, Cambridge 2007 [= Cambridge Medieval Textbooks], https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816727
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511816727

Lee A.D., Information and Frontiers. Roman Foreign Relations in Late Antiquity, Cambridge 1993, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511470622
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511470622

Lee D., Shepard J., A Double Life: Placing the Peri Presbeon, “Byzantinoslavica” 52, 1991, p. 15–39.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/eb024365

Loud G. A., Byzantium and Southern Italy (876–1000), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 560–582, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.022
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.022

Lounghis T., Byzantine Diplomacy, [in:] S. Lampakis, M. Leontsini, T. Lounghis, V. Vlysidou, Byzantine Diplomacy. A Seminar, trans. N. Russell, Athens 2007, p. 15–82.
Google Scholar

Luttwak E. N., The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, Cambridge Massachusetts–London 2009, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjhzrf5
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjhzrf5

Luttwak E. N., The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire. From the First Century CE to the Third. Revised and updated edition, Baltimore 2016, https://doi.org/10.56021/9781421419442
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.56021/9781421419442

Maas M., How the Steppes became Byzantine. Rome and the Eurasian Nomads in Historical Perspective, [in:] Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity. Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca.250–750, ed. N. di Cosmo, M. Mass, Cambridge 2018, p. 19–34, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.004
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.004

The Making of a Strategy. Rulers, States and War, ed. W. Murray, M. Knox, A. Bernstein, Cambridge 1994.
Google Scholar

Marazzi F., Byzantines and Lombards, [in:] A Companion to Byzantine Italy, ed. S. Consentino, Leiden 2021 [= Brill’s Companions to the Byzantine World, 8], p. 169–199, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004307704_007
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004307704_007

McCormick M., Western Approaches (700–900), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 395–432, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.017
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.017

Miller D. A., Byzantine Treaties and Treaty-making: 500–1025 AD, “Byzantinoslavica” 32, 1971, p. 56–76.
Google Scholar

Miller D. A., Studies in Byzantine Diplomacy. Sixth to Tenth Centuries, Ann Arbor 1983.
Google Scholar

Murray W., Thoughts on Grand Strategy, [in:] The Shaping of Grand Strategy. Policy, Diplomacy and War, ed. W. Murray, R. H. Sinnreich, J. Lacey, Cambridge 2011, p. 1–33, https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511974182.001
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511974182.001

Murray W., Grimsley M., Introduction: On Strategy, [in:] The Making of a Strategy. Rulers, States and War, ed. W. Murray, M. Knox, A. Bernstein, Cambridge 1994, p. 1–23.
Google Scholar

Nechaeva E., Patterns of Roman Diplomacy with Iran and the Steppe People, [in:] Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity. Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca.250–750, ed. N. di Cosmo, M. Mass, Cambridge 2018, p. 357–368, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.026
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.026

Nef A., Byzantium and Islam in Southern Italy (7th–11th Century), [in:] A Companion to Byzantine Italy, ed. S. Consentino, Leiden 2021 [= Brill’s Companions to the Byzantine World, 8], p. 200–224, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004307704_008
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004307704_008

Nicol D. M., Byzantine Political Thought, [in:] The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c.350–c.1450, ed. J. H. Burns, Cambridge 2008, p. 51–82.
Google Scholar

Nicol D. M., The Byzantine Views of Western Europe, “Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies” 8.4, 1967, p. 315–339.
Google Scholar

Obolensky D., The Byzantine Commonwealth. Eastern Europe, 500–1453, New York 1971.
Google Scholar

Oikonomides N., The Role of the Byzantine State in the Economy, [in:] The Economic History of Byzantium. From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, ed. A. E. Laiou, Washington D. C. 2022 [= Dumbarton Oaks Studies, 39], p. 973–1058.
Google Scholar

Pierre J., Peters B. G., Governance, Politics and the State, 2London 2020.
Google Scholar

Pierre J., Peters B. G., Governing Complex Societies. Trajectories and Scenarios, Basingstoke–New York 2005, https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230512641
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230512641

Qiang L., Kordosis S., The Geopolitics on the Silk Road: Resurveying the Relationship of the Western Türks with Byzantium through their Diplomatic Communications, “Medieval Worlds” 8, 2018, p. 109–125, https://doi.org/10.1553/medievalworlds_no8_2018s109
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/medievalworlds_no8_2018s109

Runciman S., The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign. A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium, Cambridge 1929.
Google Scholar

Shahîd I., Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century, vol. I.1, Political and Military History, Washington D. C. 1985.
Google Scholar

The Shaping of Grand Strategy. Policy, Diplomacy and War, ed. W. Murray, R. H. Sinnreich, J. Lacey, Cambridge 2011.
Google Scholar

Shepard J., Byzantine Diplomacy, A.D. 800–1204: Means and Ends, [in:] Byzantine Diplomacy. Papers from the Twenty-Fourth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, Cambridge, March 1990, ed. J. Shepard, S. Franklin, Aldershot 1992, p. 41–72.
Google Scholar

Shepard J., Constantine VII, Caucasian Openings and the Road to Aleppo, [in:] Eastern Approaches to Byzantium. Papers from the Thirty-third Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, University of Warwick, Coventry, March 1999, ed. A. Eastmond, London–New York 2016, p. 19–40.
Google Scholar

Shepard J., Equilibrium to Expansion (886–1025), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 493–536, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.020
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.020

Shepard J., Imperial Information and Ignorance: a Discrepancy, “Byzantinoslavica” 56, 1995, p. 107–116.
Google Scholar

Shepard J., Information, Disinformation and Delay in Byzantine Diplomacy, “Byzantinische Forschungen” 10, 1985, p. 233–294.
Google Scholar

Silove N., Beyond the Buzzword: The Three Meanings of ‘Grand Strategy’, “Security Studies” 27.1, 2018, p. 27–57, https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1360073
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1360073

Stephenson P., Balkan Borderlands (1018–1204), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 664–691, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.025
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.025

Stephenson P., Byzantium’s Balkan Frontier. A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204, Cambridge 2004.
Google Scholar

Stern M. S., An Embassy of the Byzantine Emperor to the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu’izz, “Byzantion” 20, 1950, p. 239–258.
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00103284

Stoker G., Governance as Theory: Five Propositions, “International Social Science Journal” 50, 1998, p. 17–28, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2451.00106
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2451.00106

Stouraitis Y., Krieg und Frieden in der politischen und ideologischen Wahrnehmung in Byzanz (7.–11. Jahrhundert), Wien 2009 [= Byzantinische Geschichtsschreiber. Ergänzungsband, 9].
Google Scholar

Stouraitis Y., State War Ethic and Popular Views on Warfare, [in:] A Companion to the Byzantine Culture of War, ca. 300–1204, ed. Y. Stouraitis, Leiden 2018 [= Brill’s Companions to the Byzantine World, 3], p. 59–91, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004363731_004
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004363731_004

Treadgold W., Byzantium and its Army 284–1081, Stanford 1995.
Google Scholar

Treadgold W., Byzantium, the Reluctant Warrior, [in:] Noble Ideas and Bloody Realities. Warfare in the Middle Ages, ed. N. Christie, M. Yazigi, Leiden 2006, p. 209–233, https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047409120_015
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047409120_015

Vasiliev A. A., Byzance et les Arabes, vol. I, La dynastie d’Amorium (820–867), ed. H. Grégoire, M. Canard, Bruxelles 1935.
Google Scholar

Vasiliev A. A., Byzance et les Arabes, vol. II, Les relations politiques de Byzance et des Arabes à l’époque de la dynastie macédonienne (les empereurs Basile I, Léon le Sage et Constantin VII Porphyrogénète) 867–959 (253–348). Première partie: Les relations politiques de Byzance et des Arabes à l’époque de la dynastie macédonienne. Première période, de 867 à 959, ed. H. Grégoire, M. Canard, Bruxelles 1968.
Google Scholar

Walters W., Some Critical Notes on “Governance”, “Studies in Political Economy” 73, 2004, p. 27–46, https://doi.org/10.1080/19187033.2004.11675150
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19187033.2004.11675150

Wheeler E. L., Methodological Limits and the Mirage of Roman Strategy: Part I, “Journal of Military History” 57.1, 1993, p. 7–41, https://doi.org/10.2307/2944221
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2944221

Wheeler E. L., Methodological Limits and the Mirage of Roman Strategy: Part II, “Journal of Military History” 57.2, 1993, p. 215–240, https://doi.org/10.2307/2944057
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2944057

Whittow M., Byzantium’s Eurasian Policy in the Age of the Türk Empire, [in:] Empires and Exchanges in Eurasian Late Antiquity. Rome, China, Iran, and the Steppe, ca.250–750, ed. N. di Cosmo, M. Mass, Cambridge 2018, p. 271–286, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.021
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316146040.021

Whittow M., The Middle Byzantine Economy (600–1204), [in:] The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire, c.500–1492, ed. J. Shepard, Cambridge 2008, p. 465–492, https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.019
Google Scholar DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521832311.019

Živković T., On the Baptism of the Serbs and Croats in the time of Basil I (867–886), “Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana” 1, 2013, p. 33–53.
Google Scholar