Annales. Etyka w Życiu Gospodarczym (wydawane w latach 1998-2020) jest periodykiem naukowym poświęconym etycznym aspektom życia gospodarczego. Problematyka zamieszczanych tekstów koncentruje się wokół etycznych konsekwencji procesów zachodzących w gospodarce światowej i europejskiej, społecznej odpowiedzialności biznesu, etyki zawodowej, tworzenia i egzekwowania kodeksów etycznych oraz etycznych problemów środowiska akademickiego. W czasopiśmie publikują autorzy zarówno z krajowych, jak i zagranicznych ośrodków naukowych. Na temat etycznych aspektów gospodarowania na jego łamach wypowiadali się czołowi polscy etycy gospodarczy, ekonomiści, ekonometrycy oraz przedstawiciele instytucji publicznych i politycy gospodarczy.
Filozoficzne trudności teorii interesariuszy
Philosophical difficulties of stakeholder theory – which plays an important role in CSR and business ethics – are connected first of all with questions of its status and justification. What sense does stakeholder theory have: descriptive, instrumental or normative? And if normative, why then should executives worry about multiple stakeholder demands? It is well known that Freeman, one of the most important authors of stakeholder theory, deliberately disregarded these problems. In philosophical questions he invoked Rorty’s pragmatism, which in his opinion effectively undermined the “positivistic” dichotomy between facts and values, science and ethics, and enabled stakeholder theory to be understood at the same time as both descriptive and normative. The article presents some difficulties connected with this view, focusing on its dubious assumptions and unfavourable consequences. To the assumptions belongs a false dilemma taken from Rorty, which states that knowledge follows either a rule of representation or a rule of solidarity. One of the unfavourable consequences is the conclusion that stakeholder theory may be true only if its followers are able to force the stakeholders to accept its truthfulness. The main thesis of the article says that, as a result of pragmatic justification, stakeholder theory became a sort of arbitrary narration, which is unable to deal with its (empirical) misuses. However, a return to a more traditional view on facts and values enables us to appreciate the descriptive advantages of the theory and to identify difficulties connected with its normative layer. From this point of view, the attempt at a pragmatic interpretation of stakeholder theory was a misunderstanding that should be withdrawn from circulation.
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Identyfikacje pojęcia sprawiedliwości społecznej
In the 1840’s due to Luigi Taparelli and Antonio Rosmini emerged the term of “social justice”. From this time, its meaning has developed in many ways. The paper brings up some applications of the notion. In the literature of the subject one can find numerous identities of “social justice”. The article focuses on the identity of this term with justice framed as: legal, distributive, commutative, penal, and restorative. Some of these concepts assumes and requires existence of some kind of social persons. By briefly analysing those notions the author tries to show the specificity of particular types of meanings assigned to the social justice.
Etyczne i ekonomiczne aspekty państwa dobrobytu
A concept of the welfare state is based on the principles of equitable distribution of wealth and equality of opportunity. The state is responsible for the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. Progressive taxation reduces the income gap between the rich and poor. However, the efforts to put principles of the welfare state into practice produced still unsatisfactory results. It was closely connected with violating the subsidiary principle and eroding the work ethics. That is just why the welfare state failed from the ethical and economic point of view.
Kategoria "moral capital" w etyce społeczno-gospodarczej
The theory of human capital is a vital common point of economics and social-economic ethics. In the economic literature there are two accounts of human capital. In the first account, the human capital is the human himself, as a creator of goods and services (A. Smith, J.S. Mill, T.W. Schultz). In the other account, the capital consists of the skills, abilities, knowledge, energy and health that the human possesses (D. Begg, J.B. Say, G.S. Becker). In economic ethics, human capital is profoundly analysed in relation to economic growth. However, the growth depends not only on the physical and mental health of businesspersons and employees, their education and professional skills, but also on their moral development. The category of human capital – although it remains quite trendy – gets interpreted in reductionist ways, i.e. in economic dimensions only, whereas the human factor in the economy should be extended to the category of moral capital. These days, the concept of moral capital begins to play a very serious role in the foundations of social sciences. The objectives of this paper are: to compare different theories of human capital, to emphasize the need for a comprehensive account of the subject, and to defend a thesis that moral capital resources support business efficiency.
"Duch demokratycznego kapitalizmu" Michaela Novaka Jego analiza i ocena w kontekście etyki chrześcijańskiej
The paper refers to Michael Novak’s book The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism. In his book Novak advances, among others, the thesis that in the light of the encyclical Laborem Exercens, published by John Paul II (1981), one can speak about some converging elements of Catholic and liberal social thought, e.g.: the creativity of modern labour, which would reflect, however, in the two doctrines the theological symbols of the Creator and His creation. But this paper cools down the enthusiasm of Novak and in six analysed aspects seeks to show that, despite some convergence in the phraseology between “the spirit of democratic capitalism” and “the spirit of Christian ethics”, there extends between them an essential abyss, which is the result of basing each “spirit” on different models of ethics.
Wprowadzenie do problemu ubóstwa w ujęciu Amartyi Kumara Sena. Wymiar etyczny
On the threshold of the 21st century the problem of poverty has not been dealt with yet. The world constantly suffers hunger, and many people have no access to running water or education. This raises fundamental question, which have bothered economy researchers for centuries: What determines the wealth of some countries, and the poverty of others? One of the contemporary researchers analysing the causes of poverty and development barriers is Indian economist Amartya Sen. Referring to the socio-economic theory of Sen, the author indicates that modernity implies the need for reflection on the definition of poverty. The author attempts to justify the thesis which focuses on the dissonance between the evaluation concepts of good and evil with objective economic factors which define poverty. The author claims that the definition of poverty should be grounded in considerations concerning good and evil in a specific time, as well as cultural and historical context.
Etyczny aspekt teorii normatywnych rachunkowości
The aim of this study is to show the ethical aspects of the so-called normative accounting theory (NT), with particular emphasis on the ethical and normative theory (EN) important for the development of accounting as a science, taking into account its social function. Attention is focused on the so-called axiological layer with regard to the methodological foundation (pragmatic methods and related metascience) regarding the work of theorists in Western Europe. Although in the years 70s shall be considered as unscientific and begin the process of domination positive theory of accounting. It seems that in the twentyfirst century takes rebirth specific ethical and social topics in accounting. The importance and usefulness of ethics in accounting due to turbulent environment changes of accounting and social needs, as well as changes within the science.
Ocena atrakcyjności inwestycji w akcje spółek społecznie odpowiedzialnych na podstawie indeksu RECPECT
In both theory and practice, it is emphasised that engaging in CSR actions brings many benefits to companies. One of the commonly listed advantages is more trust from investors, which enables the achievement of superior returns from securities issued by socially responsible firms. The paper endeavours to investigate whether this benefit can be also noticed among businesses in the Polish index of socially responsible companies RESPECT. The study involves firms included in the RESPECT index from its inception (November 2011) to the end of 2015. The authors compared the RESPECT index with selected Polish market indices between 2009 and 2015. Empirical studies, based on an analysis of returns, risk, dividend yields and shareholder structure, facilitated the assessment of the attractiveness of investments in the shares of socially responsible businesses against the background of other firms quoted on the Warsaw Stock Exchange.
Etyczne problemy w pracy na podstawie opinii pracowników wybranych banków
The paper presents ethical problems of employees in selected banks in Poland. The theoretical part of the paper deals with codes of ethics in banking, especially those concerning the moral aspects of working in banking. The empirical part of the paper presents the results of research on the ethos of bank workers. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were carried out using a specialist Internet forum devoted to the banking sector. The study includes an analysis of hundreds of comments posted on an Internet forum.
Misje wybranych banków z perspektywy koncepcji CSR
The way of functioning of commercial banks remained unchanged over the years – from the institutions involved in the distribution of financial products and services turned into organizations aspiring to the title of socially responsible entities. This means that its activities include the interests of many groups, such as customers, employees, shareholders, local communities and contractors. The result is those banks that want to be recognized as socially responsible, take numerous initiatives in areas not related to the sale, such as protection of the environment, voluntary or society. The directions of banks’ activity are determined by the key values, formulated in the mission, which defines the core of the organization and lets them stand out from the competitors. Institutions socially responsible also in this area should take into account the concept of CSR by pointing to various interest groups and taking various forms of activity. The aim of the publication is to analyse the content of the missions of selected commercial banks from the perspective of the various levels of responsibility and groups of interest. The article hypothesized that not all of the analysed commercial banks include in their missions the idea of corporate social responsibility, and those that do are limited to specific areas of action and specific stakeholder groups. The analysis was conducted on the basis of the contents available on the websites of the 10 largest financial institutions in Poland in terms of assets.
Kontrowersje związane z reklamowaniem leków. Analiza porównawcza Polski i Stanów Zjednoczonych
For many years, the subject of aggressive marketing campaigns conducted by pharmaceutical companies has been raised in Poland. Drug ads are everywhere, on television, the radio, magazines and on the Internet. Therefore, it is extremely important is to ensure both their legal and ethical dimension. In my article I will present the differences between direct-to-consumer advertising of medicines in Poland and in the US. The dissimilarities result mainly from differences in legislation. In Poland the law is much stricter than in the US. For example, in the United States companies are allowed to advertise prescription drugs directly to patients. In the whole of the European Union, and thus in Poland, it is strictly prohibited. The article will present other regulations existing in Poland and in the United States and it will compare them. It will show examples of violations of the law and ethics in the advertising of medicine in both countries. It will briefly outline the negative consequences of unacceptable pharmaceutical marketing.
The aim of the paper is to present the economic thoughts of John Calvin and his followers, referring to current issues, such as money lending, usury, or work. The latter, according to the famous thesis of Max Weber, received spiritual value by acting as a bridge between God's will and daily life. The hypothesis of this article differs somewhat from this conviction, assuming that the main economic elements of Calvinist thought have been the consequence of the release of temporal realities from the influence of the direct action of God, according to the protestant theology of the radical separation of nature and grace. Initiated by Protestantism, the dichotomy of nature and grace seems to have important consequences for economic thought. The salvific dimension of human fate remained in the hands of God, he depends entirely on its favour in connection with the dogma of predestination. In the earthly life, a human being was treated as a part of nature, his survival depended on skill and determination. in the struggle with nature, devoid of the grace of God, ruled by the law of necessity. Survival and a better life depended primarily on human labour and effort. The flourishing of economic life has resulted not only from the ethical role of work, but also from the fact that it was no longer inhibited by religious restrictions. Thus, modern man was born, more and more aware of his subjectivity, subordinating nature to himself building the human world in place of the natural world. Building a modern society and economy is part of the Protestant ethos of mastering nature.
Ekonomia personalistyczna jako próba integracji etyki i ekonomii na gruncie idei osoby
The aim of the paper is an attempt to show that the personalist economy – by referring to the idea of a person, containing and expressing all the dimensions of being human in relation to the world of people and things – provides the ability to integrate issues of ethics and economics. To achieve this goal, first, the concept of personalist economics will be presented. Then, ideas common for economics and the ethics of space, which can be a basis for integrating their issues, will be identified and characterized. Finally, the author tries to present the consequences which may result from such an integration, both for the economy as a science and as a practice of everyday life.
Źródła i konsekwencje wzrostu elastyczności rynku pracy
The transformation of the modern world of work towards the information society, knowledge society, have a rapid course. These transformations take on a global character, and the most of their consequences are negative. One of them is to base the employment process on the flexible solutions. Nowadays, neither the high level of education, nor the high competences are not enough to give confidence in finding employment. The contemporary labour market is characterised by unstableness, ‘elusiveness’ and, above all, flexibility. The challenge has become a flexible company, which employs only flexible workers within the framework of flexible forms of employment. Despite its universality, the concept of flexibility still remains inconsistent and vaguely defined.
Prekariat – nowe zjawisko na rynku pracy w Polsce
Studies of the scale of unemployment in Poland and in Europe conducted in recent years lead to the conclusion that one of the largest and growing problems of the modern labour market is the unemployment rate among young people. An unfavourable phenomenon related to the problem that is increasingly appearing in public debate is the rising unemployment of graduates. Therefore, it is important to attempt to identify the phenomena in today's job market and one of them is the formation of a new type of employee on the labour market, the member of the precarious class. The analysis aims to present the origins, nature and scale of the precariat phenomenon in Poland. The problem is described from the perspective of the labour market position of a selected social group, i.e. young people entering the labour market after finishing their education. The study attempted to identify factors that affect this phenomenon and the characteristics confirming the sense of its separation on the labour market.
Feminizacja prekariatu. Polska na tle innych krajów Europy
Precarity applies to people who, in order to survive, need to work in a low-quality job, which is uncertain, temporary, low-paid, with no prospect of promotion, no security and no contract. In this sense, the precariat is a category related mostly to the secondary segment of the labour market, according to the concept of a dual labour market. It is also the universal feature of Post-Fordism and the modern working conditions in which women, more often than men, are located in the ‘worst’segment of the labour market. In this context, it can be noted that since the beginning of the era of globalization, women start working particularly in those sectors that were more uncertain and unstable e.g. in services and trade. It was feminization in a double sense: there were more and more working women on the one hand, and on the other hand, the flexible jobs were undertaken usually by women. Most of these kind of jobs were precarity jobs. Precarity is combined with insecurity, which does not allow the people in this group to plan anything, and wages so low that they can’t afford a decent life. In the article I would like to prove that the threat of precariat is more probable for women than men. I present data related to precarity for Poland compared to other European countries (based on data from Eurostat and the OECD).
Zakres odpowiedzialności pracodawców wobec rodzin pracowników w Drugiej Rzeczypospolitej
The aim of this article is the presentation of the range of responsibility of employers towards workers’ families in Poland in the interwar period. The article also shows how these duties were realised. This problem appeared in Europe with the development of a social insurance programme and labour law. The Second Republic of Poland built its own law system for employees’ families. It included health insurance and benefits, families’ pensions and funeral allowances. Certain obligations were also imposed on employers in the context of labour law. The most important was the obligation to open nursery schools for children of women who worked in factories.
Praca jako obowiązek a praca jako źródło satysfakcji. Studium historyczne roli i znaczenia pracy w dziejach Polski (po 1945 roku)
The paper presents an analysis of the ethical, political and economic aspects of human work within two Polish historical periods – the years of the People’s Republic of Poland and after 1989. The starting point for the analysis was the assumption that every time period, each age, leaves a mark on man’s work. Analysis of the People's Republic of Poland period gives an opportunity to consider human work understood as a duty and right of every human guaranteed by the Constitution of 1952. Questioning the principles ruling the labour market by the ideologists of the People’s Republic of Poland and, as a consequence, the politicization of labour, resulted in the collapse of the work ethic. Work, as it was at that time a commonly available good, lost its value, regarded as the source of life satisfaction, and thus became ridiculed. After 1989, in relation to the de-politicization of the Polish labour market, the employee became active in searching for a job. The phenomenon of unemployment resulted in competition on the labour market and the employer was thus given the opportunity to freely select a group of employees. As a result, the employer became a distributor of a ‘rare commodity.’ That, in turn, led to the situation where the approach of employers towards employees turned into the employer's diktat. It is the employer who determines the conditions of employment, standards of work and place of work. A lack of alternative that many employees face often makes them accept the dictated conditions of work. What is more, in Poland we deal with the insufficiently developed participation of employees in managing the enterprises, which is an effect of breaking off the bilateral dependency of employee and employer.
employee participation in managing enterprises
bilateral dependency of employers and employees
Funkcjonowanie samorządów pracowniczych w wybranych krajach realnego socjalizmu
The aim of the article is to present the attempts of establishing institutions of a system of worker’s self-management in the selected countries of the so-called real socialism system in Eastern Europe. The analysis considers three of those countries, namely Yugoslavia, Poland and Hungary, whose experiences in participation of the employees’ implementation were the most significant. Particular attention was paid to the evolution of socialist regimes approach to workers’ self-management. The paper tries to answer the question whether workers’ self-management posed a threat to the socialist regimes persistence. The research method used in the study is an indepth survey and analysis of literature and legal acts.
Kobieta w zakładzie pracy w Polsce Ludowej i po 1990 r. Analiza stanu prawnego
The article deals with the mechanisms of female employment. The author has set herself the task of comparing the conditions of employment of women during the Polish People’s Republic (PRL) and contemporary times. The main aim was to indicate the evolution of labour law relating to women workers from a series of instructions and regulations of the Council of Ministers defining the protection of women's work before 1974, through a variety of general rules applicable to all employees, to the regulations contained in the Labour Code and also current legislation. The article attempts to assess the ethical actions taken by the state to improve the conditions of employment of women in the workplace. The text indicates the importance of the work in the lives of women. Occupational status and income level strongly influenced the behaviour of women, who in many cases took up work intended only for men due to the fact that during PRL it was only such work which would allow them to obtain a higher salary. The article indicates that today there is a special emphasis placed on the prohibition of restricting the employment of women in jobs and on the conditions of the employment of pregnant women. The author of this article has evaluated the legislation introduced by the state, which contributed to the increase in female activity in the labour market. However, in ethical terms of ethical it is very difficult to unambiguously assess the actions taken by the state for the protection of women's work in the PRL, but also in contemporary times.
Wpływ zasad religijnych na ukształtowanie systemu rachunkowości
Undoubtedly, such factors as different cultural background affects ‘the shape’ of economy. The impact of cultural factors on the economy, as well as its specific fields (particularly accounting), has been studied by, among others, Mueller, Hofstede and Gray. Reflections on the topic were also conducted in Polish literature, although relatively late. One of the cultural factors is, beyond doubt, religion, forming some ethical attitudes through the transfer of certain values, which become a guide to individual actions, and exerting an obvious influence on the applicable standards in a society. The author does not pretend to consider the relations between religion and ethics, in the article only issues concerning possible to demonstrate influence of religious norms on accounting are raised. The aim is briefly to discuss the impact of Christianity, Islam and Confucianism on accounting systems and practices, based on literature studies. In conclusion, the question arises about the sense of the convergence of accounting standards, at least in the context of the current efforts undertaken in this field.
Kompetencje a zachowania edukacyjne dorosłych Polaków
Increasing activity in the field of lifelong learning is an important educational goal of the European Union. The rapidly changing environment creating new demands makes it necessary to take action in the field of continuous education. Labour market requirements in the process of evolving towards a knowledge-based society are changing, which is particularly important in the era of population ageing and raising the retirement age. All forms of education: formal, non-formal and informal should gain importance in response to the growing requirements. The situation in Poland is vary unfavourable when comparing the participation in activities related to lifelong learning with other European Union countries. Research indicates various demographic, social and economic determinants of adult engagement in lifelong learning. This study attempts to assess the relationships between the level of competences in various areas and the educational behaviours of adult Poles. The analyses are based on individual data from a national survey on human capital. The crucial purpose, which is to identify interdependences among the considered factors, attitudes and behaviours, is accomplished by selected statistical and econometric methods supported by suitable data visualization techniques.
Corporate Social Resposonsibility w kontekście imperatywu kategorycznego Kanta
Immanuel Kant’s philosophy, especially his categorical imperative, is one of several ethical theories mainly used to morally legitimize actions, referred to as Corporate Social Responsibility. The aim of the current article is to evaluate if Kant’s philosophy can be used as the ethical foundation for Corporate Social Responsibility as well as to present its advantages and disadvantages in a theoretical and practical approach.
Korporacje transnarodowe a standardy CSR w zakresie ochrony środowiska
The subject of this paper is the analysis of the factors that have the greatest importance regarding the implementation of the principles of social responsibility in transnational corporations. International standards for assessing corporate social responsibility define the framework and guidelines in the evaluation of the corporation in this regard. From the company's point of view, the involvement in social activities is used primarily for improving their own image. Companies try to reconcile the desire for profit with social considerations and environmental protection, however, this process is very complex. Corporations should carry out these policies and implement appropriate procedures. Additionally, consumers want to see the use of the CSR principles in practice, so corporations should measurably help the local community and/or support social organizations. In this context, the corporation may serve a wide audience, communities, and have a significant impact on the environment. The paper will attempt to answer the question regarding which factors affect the application of CSR in corporations.
Praktyka wdrażania CSR w polskich przedsiębiorstwach w opinii doradców
The paper presents the experiences of advisers in implementing the concept of CSR in Polish enterprises. The article presents the results of surveys covering such issues as the implementation of CSR motives and actions taken by operators in the implementation of CSR policies. CSR advisors also identified that companies can use unethical practices. This is also a characteristic of CSR advisors.
Meandry konsumpcji we współczesnym społeczeństwie: konsumpcjonizm versus dekonsumpcja
The characteristic discriminant of contemporary societies, particularly in economically developed countries, is, on the one hand, the expansion of consumerism in various spheres of economic and social life, while on the other hand, it is the attempt to restrict excessive consumption. The principal aim of this paper is the description of the chosen changes in consumption in contemporary society and their economic consequences. The author searches for answers to the following question: What orientations mark out the behaviour of consumers in the market? In the search for answers to this question, the orientation towards excessive consumption that is stimulated by the ideology of consumerism and deconsumption as a protest against consumerism have been placed under analysis. In analysing the ideology of consumerism, the main styles of consumerism have been indicated as follows: consumption of pleasures, compulsive consumption and symbolic consumption. In contrast to the behaviour associated with over-consumption, the behaviour in pursuit of the restriction of the consumption of goods indirectly connected with actual needs has been described, namely sustainable consumption and anti-consumption, as well as the voluntary simplicity movement in consumption.
Wykorzystanie nowoczesnych technologii przez instytucje finansowe w procesie przeciwdziałania wykluczeniu finansowemu
Financial exclusion can be considered one of the important problems at the average level of socioeconomic development, which includes, among others, Poland. It consists in the presence of difficulties in accessing and/or using financial products and services on the main market that are suitable for the needs of individuals, and prevents them from leading a normal life in society. Due to its own characteristics and the trends in financial markets, this phenomenon is closely linked to the issue of the digital divide. Accordingly, it can be seen that solutions leading to the reduction of the financial exclusion are based on tools using information technology innovations and modern technologies. One of the methods recognized as the most effective in this area is financial education, which is aimed largely at children and adolescents, which justifies additionally the choice of such tools. It was equally important to determine the extent to which modern instruments are preferred in comparison to traditional ones. The aim of this paper will be the analysis of the solutions based on modern technologies that are used in actions taken to prevent financial exclusion in selected EU countries, including Poland. The structure of the paper is as follows: the first part will present the problem of financial exclusion (identifying groups particularly at risk), then it will review methods of preventing and combating financial exclusion, with particular emphasis on modern ICT tools, and the final part will indicate the possible directions and barriers facing the solutions that may lead to a reduced level of financial exclusion of individuals. The method made use of indepth analysis of the literature and a review of existing solutions, which financial institutions provide on the Web.
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
Postawy etyczne pracowników administracji samorządowej
The purpose of the article is to present the appropriate ethical attitudes of local government employees which affect the efficiency of the administration. Local government employees who are exclusively competent and honest are able to properly execute their goals within strictly defined procedures and tasks. The article focuses on a brief analysis of the concept of ethics, employees of local government, as well as an analysis of ethics in terms of its impact on the quality of services.
Współpraca pomiędzy biznesem a organizacjami pozarządowymi na przykładzie województwa lubuskiego
Non-governmental organisations in recent years have gained new possibilities to realise their initiatives, thanks to the strong need among corporations to maintain their socially-desired image, which translates into their greater openness towards possible cooperation with the third sector. Several representatives of NGOs, utilising the latest technological solutions, are improving both the extent of their influence and its effectiveness. As multiple examples from Lubusz Voivodeship illustrate, the strategy of cooperation between business and non-governmental organisations can take on many forms, not necessarily based on financial support. Currently, a bargaining chip in the case of both sides is their knowledge capital. Corporations striving to maintain a positive image in the surroundings they function within are more eager to support social initiatives, recognising in it a possible path to gaining a competitive edge. In my article, I intend to reflect the specificity of the business/NGO relation and its determinants on the basis of selected examples from Lubusz Voivodeship. By analysing case studies, I will try to indicate the most common mutual expectations and construct a vision of a “perfect partner”. The context of analysing the quality of relations between business and NGO’s is social capital, which is an important value determining its shape. This arises from the belief that an organisation’s social capital has a meaningful impact on its attractiveness in the eyes of a potential partner. In my paper I will also present the most recent data, depicting the level of trust among the local community.
Organizacje pozarządowe w subregionie leszczyńskim. Potencjał i bariery
Due to the growing importance of local pro-development attitudes and non-governmental organizations for development, it is important to look at their activities in different subregions. In this work the author presents the results of research carried out in the Leszno subregion on the presence of elements of social capital, the organizational and financial sustainability of NGOs, and their cooperation with public administration in the context of their impact on local development. In addition, through a comparative analysis of selected issues, it recalls the good practices of NGOs in Switzerland which, because of the long tradition of their operation and the experience gained, can also be used in Polish settings.